From slang to algospeak: How TikTok is reshaping language

With over 1.8 billion monthly users, TikTok has significantly impacted various aspects of culture. In publishing, for example, book sales surge based on what trends on #BookTok. Even musicians adapt the structure of their tracks to suit the ever-so-powerful algorithm.

But we’d be ‘delulu’ to think it stops there. TikTok is accelerating the evolution of language in real time too  by creating new vocabulary and encouraging self-censorship through coded language (‘algospeak’). So, the question is: how are these shifts happening, and are they bringing us together or just dividing us?

• TikTok, the slang engine of Gen Z
• The multilingual meme boom and cross-cultural expression
• When language becomes a barrier: The digital divide

TikTok, the slang engine of Gen Z

“TikTok isn’t just where slang lives—it’s where it’s born and distributed globally overnight.”

— Dr. Gretchen McCulloch, Internet Linguist and author of Because Internet

One of the most significant ways TikTok has impacted language is by introducing new vocabulary, particularly Gen Z slang. These terms often emerge from creators who strategically shape their speech to bypass content moderation, stimulate a sense of community or simply fish for a viral moment. This trend is further accelerated by constant exposure to memes and powerhouse influencers like MrBeast and Kimberly Loaiza.

Some popular TikTok-driven English slang words include:

• rizz: charisma (popularized by YouTuber Kai Cenat)
• delulu: delusional
• POV (Point of View): from the creator’s perspective
• face card: someone who gets what they want because of their looks
• mid: mediocre
• NPC (Non-Player Character): someone who lacks authenticity
• dupe: a cheaper imitation of a high-end product
• tea: gossip
• it’s giving…: something that evokes a particular ‘vibe’ (‘It’s giving Madonna’)

The multilingual meme boom and cross-cultural expression

Thanks to its technology and diverse creator pool, TikTok has become a space where users build cross-cultural bridges through language. Some of the avenues that have led to this are:

Blending languages for humor and connection

TikTok is, of course, a major global stage for shared humor, such as memes and viral trends. With a staggering reach across more than 150 countries. and an auto-translation tool that supports more than 15 languages, it’s a prime channel for comedic content that crosses language barriers. 

Many creators actively embrace this multilingual potential, switching between languages like English-French or using hybrids like Singlish. They might employ these mixes to highlight cultural differences or drive a joke home, as seen in memes like US mom vs. Mexican mom. Auto-generated subtitles often support this kind of content, making it more accessible to wider audiences and bringing cultures together.

Yet despite this linguistic diversity,, unsurprisingly, English continues to dominate the platform. While it’s difficult to assess the exact amount of English content on the platform, it was the top moderated language in 2024. This dominance can contribute to cultural homogenization by overshadowing local cultures and overexposing the English language, especially among TikTok’s core communities (Gen Z and Millenials). In Spanish-speaking countries like Mexico, for example, younger generations blend languages and adopt internet-specific anglicisms like postear (to post) or taggear (to tag).

Language as identity performance

Language also plays an essential role in identity performance, shaping how we present ourselves to others. It allows us to express our social or cultural backgrounds, aligning with or distancing ourselves from certain groups.

On TikTok, creators use language not only to communicate, but also to enhance a sense of belonging and cultural identity. For instance, we can find content exploring Mexico City’s queer slang, guides on K-pop fandom terminology and hundreds of memes highlighting cultural differences. In this way, users contribute to their community’s identity formation, reinforce cultural signifiers and connect with each other regardless of location.

When language becomes a barrier: The digital divide

While TikTok can be a space for community building, it can unintentionally alienate audiences in several key ways:

Slang as gatekeeping

Communities on TikTok and other platforms are developing distinct language norms, often separate from other societal groups. Acronyms like FYP (For you Page), OOMF (One of my Followers/Friends) and IYKYK (If you Know you Know) are widely used, and terms like ‘delulu’ and ‘tea’ have even made their way into IRL (In Real Life) conversations. This hyper-specialized slang can be hard for non-users or older generations to understand. The result? Difficulty engaging with content and a sense of exclusion from cultural conversations happening on and off the platform.

The rise of algospeak and hidden language

“The more TikTok slang evolves, the more it starts to resemble a subcultural dialect—intelligible to insiders, mystifying to others.”

— Prof. Ilana Gershon, Media Anthropologist, Indiana University

Another layer of linguistic complexity arises from content moderation.  To adhere to community guidelines and avoid content removal or shadowbanning, creators practice self-censorship by employing coded language that dodges moderation. They use symbols, numbers or euphemisms to mask their messaging in what is called ‘algospeak’ (algorithm speak). This way, creators can discuss sensitive topics such as politics, mental health and crime while going undetected.

Nevertheless, this form of language might not be intelligible to casual social media users or outsiders, which can create communication obstacles.

Let’s look at some examples of algospeak:

• Dior bags: drones
• unalive: death
• seggs: sex
• depressi0n: depression

Echo chambers

While the in-group communication can have a positive impact on community bonds, it can also deepen divisions and create linguistic echo chambers.  As users engage with specific kinds of slang or dialect, they may become siloed into particular content bubbles. This limits exposure to alternative perspectives and can create mutual incomprehension between online subcultures.

A new language era—or a cultural divide?

The reach and speed of platforms like TikTok have a significant impact on how younger generations communicate. Social media slang and algospeak are influencing language, with positive and negative consequences. While on one hand they can foster a sense of belonging, on the other they risk widening generational or cultural gaps or contribute to cultural homogenization. This phenomenon also means that cultural fluency now demands not just linguistic ability, but also social media literacy, which makes it harder for certain groups to access particular discussions. 

As we look ahead, only time will tell if these shifts will permanently reshape language, and who they’ll bring on board.

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German modal particles: The secret sauce to native-level fluency

If you’ve ever listened to a native German speaker and wondered, “What does ‘doch’ even mean here?”, welcome to the world of German modal particles. These little words — doch, mal, ja, halt — don’t translate easily, because they don’t carry meaning the way most words do. Instead, they add tone, emotion and nuance. Think of them as the seasoning in a German conversation; they’re not vital for structure, but they do add some necessary flavor.

• Why German modal particles matter for fluency
• Common German modal particles and their meanings
• How to use modal particles in a sentence
• FAQs

Why German modal particles matter for fluency

 German modal particles (Modalpartikeln) make speech feel more relaxed, more emotional, more human. Natives sprinkle them in without thinking. Learners, meanwhile, are often left wondering why their technically correct German still sounds a bit robotic.

Fluency isn’t just about knowing words, but about learning and internalizing how people actually speak. And modal particles are everywhere in colloquial German. They can make a sentence sound softer (mal), more persuasive (doch), more obvious (ja) or more resigned (halt). You won’t see them in many textbooks, because they’re notoriously hard to explain. But in real life, they’re part of the fabric of the language.

Common German modal particles and their meanings

Let’s get to know the usual suspects. These are the most common German modal particles, and while their meanings shift slightly depending on context, here’s what they usually do:

‘Aber’ — Emphasis or contradiction

Aber does more work than its literal translation (“but”) might suggest. As a modal particle, aber adds emphasis or contradiction.

• Das ist aber schön! (That really is nice!)

‘Ja’ — Obviousness or shared knowledge

Ja is used to signal something that’s unarguably true.

• Du bist ja verrückt! (You’re obviously crazy!)

‘Wohl’ — Assumed truth or probability

Wohl adds a sense of assumption to a statement.

• Er wird wohl noch im Büro sein. (He’s probably still at the office.)

‘Doch’ — Contradiction or emphasis

Doch is the Swiss Army knife of modal particles, and can be used either for emphasis or to contradict a statement.

• Komm doch mit! (Come along, will you?)
• Das hast du doch schon gesehen (You’ve indeed seen that already.)

You can also use it by itself to reply to something, both contradicting and with emphasis.

• Du hast ja die Wohnung nicht geputzt! (You have obviously not cleaned the apartment!)

Doch! (I have!)

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‘Halt’ and ‘eben’ — Resignation, acceptance

These two often get lumped together, as they can be used in somewhat interchangeable ways.

• Das ist halt so. (That’s just how it is.)
• Dann ist das eben so. (Well, so be it.)

‘Schon’ — Softeners, reassurance

Schon helps to soften what might otherwise sound blunt.

• Das wird schon klappen. (It’ll work out, don’t worry.)

‘Mal’ — Informality, casualness

Mal can make commands or requests sound more friendly.

• Guck mal! (Take a look!)

‘Denn’ — Used in questions for curiosity or surprise

Denn does not translate to “because” in this particular instance. In questions, it adds a sense of curiosity or surprise.

• Was machst du denn da? (What are you doing there?)

‘Nun’ — Structuring speech, soft transition

Nun helps transition gently into something.

• Nun, das ist eine gute Frage. (Well, that’s a good question.)

‘Schließlich’ — Logical reasoning (i.e., ‘after all’)

Schließlich adds a “we already know this” tone.

• Sie hat schließlich viel Erfahrung in diesem Bereich. (She does have a lot of experience in this area, after all.)

You don’t need to memorize all of these modal particles at once. But knowing what they mean and how they function in a typical sentence can help you hear them with new ears.

How to use modal particles in a sentence

German modal particles may seem random, but there’s a rhythm to how they’re used. While they don’t follow strict grammar rules like verbs or cases, they do have patterns. You can’t just drop them anywhere and hope for the best.

Position

Modal particles usually appear after the verb, often in the second or third position in the sentence. They rarely sound natural at the very start or end of a sentence.

• Du bist ja müde. (You’re obviously tired.)

One particle is good. Two? Still good

Germans often stack modal particles, especially ones that naturally pair — like doch mal or ja wohl. The order tends to follow what sounds “right” to native ears.

• Geh doch mal schlafen! (Just go to sleep already!)

While modal particles make speech sound casual and natural, throwing five into a single sentence is indeed trying too hard. It’s better to pick one or two instead, and let them do the work.

Try listening to native speakers and reading dialogue-heavy texts. Eventually, you’ll start to feel where these words go, even if you can’t explain why. 

What are modal particles in German?

They’re small words that add tone or attitude — like emphasis, surprise or softness — to a sentence without changing its basic meaning.

What is the difference between ‘doch’ and ‘ja’?

Doch often contradicts something or adds encouragement (e.g., “Come on, do it!”). Ja points out something obvious or shared (e.g., “You know it’s true.”).

Tiny words, big impact: Master German modal particles 

Modal particles may be tiny, but they punch way above their weight when it comes to making your German sound fluent and natural. We’ve covered what they are and why they matter. You now know where they fit in a sentence, how they shape tone and even how they team up.

Modal particles don’t come easy at first, but the more you hear and use them, the more instinctive they become. And that’s exactly the kind of practice you can expect with Lingoda, where you can learn German from native-level teachers in real conversations.

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How to form indirect questions in German

Indirect questions are often delicately couched inside statements or paired with other questions. So, instead of asking, “Wo ist der Bahnhof?” (Where is the train station?), you might ask, “Können Sie mir sagen, wo der Bahnhof ist?”. It’s more or less the same question, but the indirect version is dressed up in an extra layer of nicety.

Because indirect questions are essential in formal and professional situations, understanding how to form them will seriously level up your spoken and written German. So, how do these elegant guys work? Let’s break it down.

• Direct vs. indirect questions
• Forming indirect questions in German
• Punctuation and syntax nuances
• Practical applications
• FAQs

Direct vs. indirect questions

Direct questions shoot straight from the hip. They typically take the form of a simple, plain statement followed by a question mark. To form a direct question in German, flip the word order so that the verb precedes the subject, like so:

• Wo wohnt sie? (Where does she live?)

Indirect questions, on the other hand, are more diplomatic. This requires some additional grammatical work, as indirect questions are generally tucked inside or paired with another clause — a polite request, statement or question about a question, for example:

• Kannst du mir sagen, wo sie wohnt? (Can you tell me where she lives?)

Here’s the main structural difference:

• In direct questions, the verb usually comes before the subject.
• In indirect questions, the verb goes to the end, like in a subordinate clause.

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Forming indirect questions in German

Indirect questions follow a clear logic — but when we’re dealing with German word order, even clear logic can seem puzzling at first! So, for the sake of clarity, we’ll break this down into manageable parts:

Structure and word order

In an indirect question, the question becomes part of a larger sentence. That means it behaves like a subordinate clause, and in German, that means the verb goes to the end. Compare the following two sentences, the first of which is a direct question and the second of which is an indirect version of that same question (albeit, one that’s disguised as a statement):

• Was machst du? (What are you doing?)
• Ich weiß nicht, was du machst. (I don’t know what you’re doing.)

The word order in the indirect question flips, because we’re embedding the question inside a statement.

Using ‘ob’ for yes/no questions

When an indirect question doesn’t start with a question word but nonetheless demands a “yes” or “no” answer, German uses the word “ob” (whether/if), like so:

• Kommst du morgen? (Are you coming tomorrow?)
• Ich weiß nicht, ob du morgen kommst. (I don’t know if you’re coming tomorrow.)

Here, “ob” sets up the subordinate clause containing the indirect question. The verb (kommst) goes to the end, as it always does in subordinate clauses.

Using ‘W’ questions

For questions that start with words like wann (when), wo (where), wie (how) and warum (why), just plug the question word into the indirect sentence — and, again, move that verb to the end:

• Warum lernst du Deutsch? (Why are you learning German?)
• Er fragt, warum du Deutsch lernst. (He asks why you’re learning German.)

The recipe is straightforward:

“W” question word + subject + end verb = indirect question

Once you learn the pattern, you’ll start spotting indirect questions everywhere.

Punctuation and syntax nuances

As we’ve seen, indirect questions don’t always use question marks in German — though they’re still technically questions. The rule is simple:

• If the sentence is a statement that contains a question, use a period:
  Ich weiß nicht, wann er kommt. (I don’t know when he’s coming.)
• If the sentence is a question about a question, use a question mark:
  Kannst du mir sagen, wann er kommt? (Can you tell me when he’s coming?)

It’s not about whether there’s a question word in the sentence, but whether the whole sentence is functioning as a question or not.

Practical applications

Everyday conversations

Indirect questions help keep things friendly, polite or just a bit less in-your-face. You’ll hear them all the time in casual chats:

• Weißt du, wo mein Handy ist? (Do you know where my phone is?)
• Kannst du mir sagen, wie spät es ist? (Can you tell me what time it is?)

The indirect formulation is especially useful when you need to ask for help or information without sounding too direct.

Formal and written communication

In emails, job interviews or academic contexts, indirect questions are the standard for sounding respectful and professional:

• Ich würde gerne wissen, ob die Unterlagen vollständig sind. (I’d like to know if the documents are complete.)
• Könnten Sie mir mitteilen, wann das Besprechung stattfindet? (Could you let me know when the meeting is taking place?)

Using indirect questions in writing shows a solid grasp of tone — and makes you sound like a grown-up in the best way.

What is an indirect question in German?

An indirect question is a question embedded in a statement or another question, with the verb moved to the end of the subordinate clause.

How do you use ‘ob’ in German?

Use ob to introduce yes-or-no indirect questions, like: Ich weiß nicht, ob er kommt. (I don’t know if he is coming.)

Start using indirect questions with confidence 

Indirect questions in German may look like a grammatical detour, but they’re actually a shortcut to sounding more natural, polite and fluent. We’ve looked at how they differ from direct questions, how to form them using ob and “W” question words, and where to place that ever-important verb. We’ve also seen how useful they are — whether you’re casually asking a friend to pass the salt or writing a professional email.

Mastering indirect questions isn’t about memorizing rules — it’s about practicing them in real conversations. That’s where learning German with Lingoda’s small group classes pays off. You’ll get live feedback, flexible scheduling and plenty of chances to ask how and why (indirectly or otherwise).

Ready to put your polite German into action? Go ask someone where the train station is — but do it like a pro.

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High German vs. Low German: Key differences explained

Aside from their regional designations, German dialects are generally grouped into two categories: High German and Low German. These terms have nothing to do with how “correct” or “proper” the language is; rather, they reflect how German has developed and diverged across vast swaths of land and time.

In this article, you’ll learn the key differences between High German vs. Low German. We’ll clarify what these terms actually mean and discuss how they’ve shaped the German you hear today.

• What “High” and “Low” really mean
• A sound divide: The High German consonant shift
• A short timeline of German dialect evolution
• Key differences between High and Low German
• Cultural and linguistic importance today
• FAQ

What ‘High’ and ‘Low’ really mean

Germany, Switzerland, and Austria are home to a broad variety of German dialects. While most of these dialects get their name from the region they’re spoken in — Bavarian, for instance — German dialects are also classified into two different categories: High German and Low German.  

When we talk about “High” versus “Low,” we’re not talking about a measure of quality or even correctness. Instead, these terms literally refer to height — as in, elevation. 

High German dialects are spoken in the southern German uplands, a stretch of land that includes Bavaria, Austria, and Switzerland. Low German dialects are spoken in the northern German lowlands and can be heard across cities like Hamburg and Bremen and in northern states like Schleswig-Holstein. 

Is High German the same as Standard German?

Here’s where it can get confusing. The term “High German” is also sometimes used to mean Standard German (Standarddeutsch or Hochdeutsch), the standard written and spoken language used in schools and media across Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. The reason for this is that Standard German is derived mainly from written dialects used in the High German dialect area, especially Saxony and Thuringia. 

The geography of German dialects

Look at the North-South dialect map after 1945, and you’ll notice that the linguistic border between Low and High German runs from west (approximately at the latitude of Münster) to east.

In the north, across the German lowlands, people traditionally spoke various dialects of Low German (Plattdeutsch). These dialects developed separately from Standard German and share some linguistic features with Dutch and English. 

In the central regions of the German-speaking world, you’ll hear High German varieties of places like Hesse, Thuringia and parts of the Rhineland. In the southern regions, especially in Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Austria and Switzerland, you’ll find Upper German dialects. 

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A sound divide: The High German consonant shift

If High German and Low German dialects sound quite different, it largely owes to the High German consonant shift. This shift spread gradually from the southern uplands (i.e., the Alps and Central Germany) northward and is believed to have been mostly completed by around 800 CE. 

As this shift took hold, words evolved. Appel (apple) became Apfel, while dat (that) evolved to das in High German. Some common German verbs, like machen (to do), retain their Low German flavor to this day (e.g. makken). As the shift didn’t happen in Low German regions, older forms of words with Saxon or Old High German roots were preserved and are still used in some northern regions of Germany.

Here’s how some consonants changed in High German after the consonant shift:

• p → pf or f 
• t → ts or s
• k → ch 

This is one of the defining features that separates High German variants (like Bavarian, Alemannic and Standard German) from Low German, which preserved the older sound system. To give you a better understanding of what these differences sound like, here’s a quick comparison between the dialects: 

A short timeline of German dialect evolution

History is messy and doesn’t move in a straight line. Nowhere is this more apparent, perhaps, than in the evolution of German dialects. The divide between Low German and High German was shaped gradually by geography, trade, politics and even the printing press.

High German dialects evolved in the upland (southern) regions and underwent the High German consonant shift around 900 CE. This gave rise to Old High German, which later developed into Middle High German during the Middle Ages. 

With Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible in the 16th century, a more unified written form (based on an East Central German dialect) began to emerge. By the 19th century, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm and others helped codify Modern Standard German, which became dominant through education and media.

Low German, spoken in the northern lowlands, followed a different path. It began as Old Saxon, developed into Middle Low German and flourished in trade hubs across Northern Europe. However, its influence waned after the 17th century, as High German became the language of power, religion and printing. Today, Low German survives mainly in spoken form, and it’s often viewed as a regional heritage rather than as a standardized language.

Key differences between High vs. Low German

Cultural and linguistic importance today

Low German: A living dialect

Today, Low German (Plattdeutsch) is mostly spoken in northern parts of Germany and the northeastern Netherlands. Especially in rural communities from Lower Saxony to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, you can still hear some Platt speakers. Many older generations continue to use it in daily life, and some schools and local media even offer content in Platt to help preserve the tradition.

Interestingly, Low German has also found a second life far from its northern roots. Variants are spoken by Amish and Mennonite communities in the United States, Canada, Mexico and Paraguay. For the people who emigrated from Low German regions to these parts of the world, Low German is a source of cultural pride and its preservation is an important part of German tradition.

High German: The backbone of Standard German

High German forms the base of Standard German, which is the version used in schools, government institutions and international settings. You’ll hear it on national news, find it in textbooks, and use it when communicating in international or professional contexts. If you want to learn German, this is the version of German you’ll encounter in language schools (unless it’s explicitly stated otherwise).

Today, High German is spoken beyond Germany’s borders — in Austria, much of Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and parts of eastern France (like Lorraine). While regional accents and dialects still add local flavor, Hochdeutsch remains the unifying language that connects millions of speakers across different countries and cultures.

How different are High German and Low German?

High German and Low German differ significantly in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. These differences stem mainly from the High German consonant shift, which Low German did not undergo, making the two sound quite distinct.

Can High German speakers understand Low German?

While some words may be similar, many High German speakers find Low German difficult to understand without prior exposure, as it can sound almost like a separate language rather than a dialect. 

Bridging the past and present of German

While High German is more relevant to your language journey than Low German, the evolution of the German language remains fascinating nonetheless. Both dialects are utterly important to the German linguistic heritage and carry centuries of history, identity and regional pride.

High German might be your everyday classroom companion, but Low German gives you a glimpse into Germany’s diverse roots and cultural richness. Exploring both helps you grasp how the language evolved — and how it’s still changing.

At Lingoda, you’ll find teachers from all over the German-speaking world with a deep understanding of regional dialects and how they differ from Standard German. Whether you’re visiting a class in German A1 or German C1, our teachers will make sure that you learn how people actually speak.

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Understanding and using the present progressive (continuous) in English

The present progressive tense, also called the present continuous, is used to talk about actions happening now, temporary situations, and future plans. It’s one of the first English tenses learners study, and one of the most commonly used in everyday conversation. But, it’s also a tense that learners struggle to use accurately. 

In this article, you’ll learn how to form the present progressive, when to use it, and how it compares to the present simple. You’ll also see common examples and learn practical tips for using it correctly in real-life situations, from daily routines to professional settings. Whether you’re learning English for work, study, or travel, understanding this tense will help you speak more naturally and confidently.

• What is the present progressive tense?
• When to use the present progressive tense
• How to form the present progressive tense
• Present progressive vs. present simple
• Practical examples and tips for mastering the present progressive
• FAQs

What is the present progressive tense?

The present progressive is an English present tense. It is used to describe actions currently in progress, temporary situations, and future arrangements. We can also use it to talk about situations that are changing and to express annoyance. We form the present progressive like this: 

subject + am/is/are + present participle (-ing verb)

It’s very common to contract ‘be’ in the present progressive, especially in speech and informal writing. (I am → I’m; we are → we’re) Here are some examples of the present progressive: 

• I’m trying to finish this report. 
• You are making too much noise. 
• He’s running really quickly. 
• We’re just driving home. 
• They are learning English. 

We don’t tend to use stative verbs in the present progressive. We use the present simple instead.  

• I’m understanding. ❌ → I understand. ✅
• He’s believing anything you tell him. ❌ → He believes anything you tell him. ✅

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When to use the present progressive tense

Actions happening now

One of the most common uses of the present continuous tense is to talk about actions happening now, either at the moment of speaking or around the time of speaking. These are unfinished actions — they’re in progress. 

• What are you doing?
  • I’m cooking dinner. ← This most likely refers to what’s happening at exactly the moment of speaking. 
• They are renovating their house. ← They may not be doing this at the exact moment of speaking, but the renovation is in progress now. 

Temporary situations

We use the present progressive to talk about situations or actions that we see as temporary rather than permanent or habitual.  

• She’s staying with her sister this week. (But she normally lives somewhere else.) 
• We are working in Paris for the next few months. (But we normally work in Warsaw.)
• I’m going to the gym in the mornings at the moment. (But I normally go at another time of day.) 

Future plans

The present progressive can also express future plans or arrangements. These are things in the future that have already been planned or organised. 

• We’re having dinner with my parents tomorrow. 
• Ingrid is starting a new job next week. 
• I’m going to Los Angeles on Sunday. 

Changing or developing situations

To talk about situations that are evolving or developing over time, we can also use the present continuous. The implication is that the situation will continue to change as time goes on. 

• My children are growing up so quickly! 
• The weather is getting better every day. 

Repetitive actions with ‘always’

We can also use the present progressive with the adverb ‘always’ to express annoyance at habits or to make complaints. ‘Always’ appears after ‘be’. 

• You’re always losing your keys! 
• He’s always interrupting me.  

How to form the present progressive tense

Negative sentences

To form negative sentences in the present progressive, we use this structure: 

subject + be + not + -ing verb

• I’m not enjoying this film. 
• Kate is not feeling well. 
• They’re not behaving very well. 

Questions

We form yes/no questions in the present continuous like this: 

be + subject + -ing verb

• Are you leaving? 
• Is he having dinner with us? 

We form wh-questions similarly: 

wh-word + be + subject + -ing verb

• Where are you going? 
• Who is she speaking with? 

Present progressive vs. present simple

Here is a comparison table showing some of the main ways the present progressive and present simple are used, with examples. 

Practical examples and tips for mastering the present progressive

One of the best and easiest ways to master the present progressive is to narrate your actions throughout the day. 

• I’m washing my face. Now I’m brushing my teeth. 

To add more variation, try imagining what other people are doing at that moment or describe images of people (we use continuous tenses to do this in English). Doing this should help you nail the structure. 

In professional settings, the present continuous is essential for describing what you’re currently working on, what your plans are, and to describe changes: 

• We’re working on the Q3 report.
• Our team is growing rapidly this year.

If you would like to master the present progressive, learn English online with Lingoda. Lingoda’s small-group classes give you plenty of time to practise, and you’ll be guided by a native-level teacher, who can provide useful, real-life examples and help you sound more natural.

What is an example with present progressive?

“I am listening to a podcast.” This is an example of a present progressive sentence. 

What 3 things do you need to form the present progressive?

To form the present progressive, you need a subject, the auxiliary verb ‘be’ in the present tense, and a present participle (-ing verb). 

What is the rule for present progressive?

Generally, we don’t use stative verbs in the present progressive. We use action verbs.

Final thoughts on the present continuous

The present progressive helps you talk about what’s happening now, what’s changing, and what’s planned. Mastering it will help you make distinctions between temporary and permanent situations and future plans versus things you’d simply like to happen. 

The best way to learn English, including practising the present progressive in real conversations, try online language learning with Lingoda. Classes are available 24/7, so you can study when it suits you. Thanks to Lingoda’s small class sizes, you’ll learn to use the present progressive and speak with confidence from day one.

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When to use ‘als’, ‘wenn’ or ‘wann’ in German

Choosing between als or wenn in German can be tricky. In English, we often use a single word (“when”) that can translate to both conjunctions. But German makes a finer distinction. Whether you use als or wenn depends on whether you’re talking about the past or the future, or a single event, or a repeated action, or a condition.

In this guide, you’ll learn how temporal clauses work in German grammar — which includes a discussion of how to correctly apply als and wenn. We’ll review some illustrative examples to show you the difference and get you ready to form your own temporal clauses.

• Understanding temporal clauses in German grammar
• Using als: Referring to single events in the past
• Using wenn: For repeated actions, future events and conditions
• Using wann: Asking or referring to a point in time
• Als vs. wenn: Making the right choice
• Wann vs. wenn: Timing vs. condition
• FAQs

Understanding temporal clauses in German grammar

What are temporal clauses?

Temporal clauses (Temporalsätze) are subordinate clauses that provide information about when an action or event in the main clause takes place. They are introduced by conjunctions like als or wenn and follow standard subordinate clause word order in German. 

Temporal clauses are used to talk about sequences, repetitions, or durations of actions and events in the past, present or future.

Why word order matters in German clauses

In German, the word order in main clauses and subordinate clauses differs primarily in the verb’s position. 

In main clauses, the conjugated verb is always in the second position. The subject can appear in the first or third position, depending on the word order.

In subordinate clauses, the conjugated verb is placed at the end of the clause. In the case of compound tenses, this means that the participle comes before the auxiliary verb (e.g. haben or sein), and the auxiliary verb is placed at the very end of the clause.

Temporal conjunctions like als or wenn introduce subordinate clauses and take the first position, providing information about when the action takes place:

• Als ich ankam, war es schon zu spät. (When I arrived, it was already too late.)
• Wenn ich losfahre, rufe ich dich an. (When I leave, I’ll call you.)

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Using ‘als’: Referring to single events in the past

The conjunction als is used to talk about a single event that happened in the past. It indicates that something occurred only once, not repeatedly:

• Als wir uns trafen, war es 18 Uhr. (When we met, it was 6 p.m.)

Using ‘wenn’: For repeated actions, future events and conditions

The conjunction wenn is quite versatile. It refers to repeated actions in the past, events in the present and future and conditions.

Repeated events in the past

If an event or situation happened more than once in the past, the conjunction wenn is used:

• Wenn es im Sommer heiß war, gingen wir jeden Tag ein Eis holen. (When it was hot in the summer, we went out for ice cream every day.)

Present, future and conditional sentences

Wenn applies to present and future situations, too. This is true regardless of how often they occur:

• Wenn ich Kaffee trinke, fühle ich mich wacher. (When I drink coffee, I feel more awake.)
• Wenn wir in Rom sind, werden wir das Kolosseum besuchen. (When we are in Rome, we’ll visit the Colosseum.)

Wenn can also be used to form conditional sentences in German, much like “if” in English:

• Wenn es morgen regnet, besuchen wir ein Museum. (If it rains tomorrow, we’ll visit a museum.)

Comparing ‘wenn’ to ‘falls’ (if/in case)

Wenn and falls both serve to introduce a condition in German, but they differ slightly in tone and nuance.

Wenn implies a real, likely or repeated event and usually translates to “if” in English:

• Wenn die Sonne scheint, gehen wir spazieren. (If the sun shines, we go for a walk.)

Falls, on the other hand, sounds more hypothetical or cautious and is often considered more formal. It’s closer in meaning to “in case” in English and typically refers to conditions that are less likely and/or not repeated:

• Falls ihr früher zu Hause seid, können wir zusammen essen. (In case you get home earlier, we can eat together.)

Using ‘wann’: Asking or referring to a point in time

Direct questions with ‘wann’

If you want to ask when something happens, use wann, which translates to “when” in English.

In direct questions, wann typically comes at the beginning of the sentence:

• Wann sehen wir uns? (When will we see each other?)

Indirect questions and subordinate clauses

Wann is also used in subordinate clauses to introduce indirect questions. These clauses depend on a main clause and follow the standard word order in which the verb is placed at the end:

• Ich weiß nicht, wann sie kommt. (I don’t know when she’s coming.)

The key difference between direct and indirect questions is the word order. In indirect questions, the verb moves to the end of the clause.

‘Als’ vs. ‘wenn’: Making the right choice

Deciding whether to use als or wenn can be challenging. Even though both translate to “when” in English, they’re not interchangeable in German.

The main difference between these temporal conjunctions lies in tense and frequency:

• Als is for single events in the past.
• Wenn is for repeated events, conditions and any present or future events — regardless of how often they occur.

One-time vs. repeated events

‘Wann’ vs. ‘wenn’: Timing vs. condition

Wann and wenn may look and sound similar, but they serve different purposes in German.

Wann is used to ask when something happens. In direct questions, it appears at the beginning of the sentence; in indirect questions, it functions as part of a subordinate clause.

Wenn expresses a condition, similar to “if” in English. It’s not used in questions and always introduces a subordinate clause that describes the condition for the main clause.

Let’s see some examples:

• Wann fahren wir in den Urlaub? (When do we go on vacation?)

Here we are asking about the specific point in time in which we are going on vacation. Contrast this example with the following:

• Wenn ich müde bin, gehe ich früher ins Bett. (If I’m tired, I go to bed earlier.)

This sentence isn’t a question. The action in the main clause depends on the condition stated in the subordinate clause.

When do you use als vs. wenn in German?

Als is used for single events in the past. Wenn applies to repeated events, present or future actions, and conditions.

Is wenn used to refer to the past or the future?

Wenn is used for both the past and the future. In the past, it refers to repeated events, while in the future, it introduces any event or condition, regardless of how often they occur.

Key Takeaways on ‘als’, ‘wenn’ and ‘wann’

Mastering the difference between als, wenn and wann is key for forming accurate temporal and conditional sentences in German. Use als for single events in the past; wenn for repeated actions, present or future events and conditions; and wann to ask when something happens, either directly or indirectly.

Before focusing on these conjunctions, make sure you understand how to talk about the past in German and build a solid foundation in tense usage and sentence structure.To put these concepts into practice in real conversations, try Lingoda’s small group classes led by native-level teachers. Find your level, from German A1 to German C1, and start learning at your own pace.

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13 long German words you’ll actually use (and one you’ll probably never say)

Let’s face it: German words have a reputation for being quite long. To non-German speakers, they can look less like vocabulary and more like a keyboard malfunction. But a good number of these impressively lengthy words are not mere linguistic curiosities. They’re alive and well in everyday German usage.

In this guide, we’ll explore 13 of the longest and most difficult German words you might actually use in real life. Plus, we’ll throw in one absurdly long outlier that exists purely to break records. Along the way, we’ll break down why German words get so long in the first place and how you can learn them without melting your brain. Spoiler: there’s logic behind the chaos.

Ready to surprise yourself with how usable some of the longest German words really are? Let’s dive in.

• Why are German words so long?
• 13 long German words you’ll actually use
• What’s the longest German word ever?
• How to learn long German words without getting overwhelmed
• FAQs

Why are German words so long?

German isn’t trying to scare you — it’s just playing by different rules. 

The reason long German words exist at all comes down to one glorious concept: compound words. Instead of borrowing terms from other languages, German often takes two (or three, or four) existing words and glues them together into one mega-word that can seem quite literal in its translation.

At the core of this linguistic phenomenon are morphemes — the smallest units of meaning. Put simply, German loves combining morphemes. Add a prefix here, a suffix there, stack up a few nouns in between, and voilà: Krankenhausverwaltungssystem (hospital administration system) is born.

German grammar actually encourages this. There’s no real limit to how many nouns you can stack, as long as the meaning stays clear. It reflects a very German style of efficiency. In government, engineering and other professions where precision is king, compound words help communicate highly specific ideas without ambiguity.

So, yes, the words get long — but they’re not random. They’re custom-built for clarity.

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13 long German words you’ll actually use

1. ‘Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung’ (car liability insurance)

• Definition: Car liability insurance
• Breakdown: Kraft (power) + Fahrzeug (vehicle) + Haftpflicht (liability) + Versicherung (insurance)
• Example: Ich brauche eine neue Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung für mein Auto.
• Context: Bureaucratic/legal
• Pronunciation tip: Break it into eight parts: Kraft-fahr-zeug-haft-pflicht-ver-siche-rung

2. ‘Rechtsschutzversicherungsgesellschaften’ (legal protection insurance companies)

• Definition: Legal protection insurance companies
• Breakdown: Recht (law) + Schutz (protection) + Versicherung (insurance) + Gesellschaften (companies)
• Example: Rechtsschutzversicherungsgesellschaften bieten Hilfe bei juristischen Streitfällen.
• Context: Legal/insurance
• Note: Pluralization adds even more length. Take a deep breath before attempting this one.

3. ‘Aufenthaltsgenehmigung’ (residence permit)

• Definition: Residence permit
• Breakdown: Aufenthalt (residency/stay) + Genehmigung (permission)
• Example: Ich habe endlich meine Aufenthaltsgenehmigung bekommen!
• Context: Immigration/bureaucracy
• Pronunciation tip: Emphasize Auf-ent-halts to keep rhythm.

4. ‘Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung’ (speed limit)

• Definition: Speed limit
• Breakdown: Geschwindigkeit (speed) + Begrenzung (limitation)
• Example: Die Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung auf der Autobahn beträgt 130 km/h.
• Context: Road regulations

5. ‘Unfallversicherungsgesetz’ (accident insurance law)

• Definition: Accident insurance law
• Breakdown: Unfall (accident) + Versicherung (insurance) + Gesetz (law)
• Example: Das Unfallversicherungsgesetz schützt Arbeitnehmer im Falle eines Arbeitsunfalls.
• Context: Legal/workplace safety

6. ‘Hausratsversicherung’ (home contents insurance)

• Definition: Home contents insurance
• Breakdown: Hausrat (household contents) + Versicherung (insurance)
• Example: Meine Hausratsversicherung deckt auch Wasserschäden ab.
• Context: Domestic/insurance

7. ‘Lieferungsbestätigung’ (delivery confirmation)

• Definition: Delivery confirmation
• Breakdown: Lieferung (delivery) + Bestätigung (confirmation)
• Example: Bitte senden Sie uns eine Lieferungsbestätigung per E-Mail.
• Context: Business/logistics

8. ‘Gesundheitsschutzmaßnahmen’ (health protection measures)

• Definition: Health protection measures
• Breakdown: Gesundheit (health) + Schutz (protection) + Maßnahmen (measures)
• Example: Die Regierung hat neue Gesundheitsschutzmaßnahmen eingeführt.
• Context: Public health/government policy

9. ‘Arbeitsunfähigkeitsbescheinigung’ (sick leave certificate)

• Definition: Sick leave certificate
• Breakdown: Arbeitsunfähigkeit (inability to work) + Bescheinigung (certificate)
• Example: Der Arzt hat mir eine Arbeitsunfähigkeitsbescheinigung ausgestellt.
• Context: Workplace/medical
• Pronunciation tip: Tackle it in chunks: Ar-beits-un-fä-hig-keits-be-schei-ni-gung.

10. ‘Lebensmittelunverträglichkeit’ (food intolerance)

• Definition: Food intolerance
• Breakdown: Lebensmittel (food) + Unverträglichkeit (intolerance)
• Example: Ich habe eine Lebensmittelunverträglichkeit gegenüber Laktose.
• Context: Medical/dietary

11. ‘Personalausweisnummer’ (ID card number)

• Definition: ID card number
• Breakdown: Personalausweis (ID card) + Nummer (number)
• Example: Bitte geben Sie Ihre Personalausweisnummer an.
• Context: Administrative/identification

12. ‘Straßenverkehrsordnung’ (road traffic regulations)

• Definition: Road traffic regulations
• Breakdown: Straße (street) + Verkehr (traffic) + Ordnung (rules/regulations)
• Example: Die Straßenverkehrsordnung regelt das Verhalten im Straßenverkehr.
• Context: Legal/road safety

13. ‘Versicherungsgesellschaft’ (insurance company)

• Definition: Insurance company
• Breakdown: Versicherung (insurance) + Gesellschaft (company)
• Example: Die Versicherungsgesellschaft hat den Schaden übernommen.
• Context: Business/legal

What’s the longest German word ever?

Ah, yes, the legend itself:
Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz (63 letters long — yes, we counted.)

Definition: Beef labeling supervision duties delegation law

Breakdown:

• Rindfleisch – beef
• Etikettierung – labeling
• Überwachung – supervision
• Aufgaben – duties
• Übertragung – transfer/delegation
• Gesetz – law

This Frankenstein of a noun was coined in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern for a very specific piece of legislation about the authority responsible for monitoring beef labeling. Bureaucracy, meet linguistic maximalism.

Don’t worry, though. This one is definitely considered advanced German vocabulary, and as such it’s not necessary to learn right away (or ever, if we’re being honest). Though the law itself was repealed in 2013, the unwieldy word it spawned lives on in memes, textbooks and cocktail party trivia. Why? Because it’s a perfect example of how German can technically build words with no upper limit in terms of length — as long as the logic holds.

How to learn long German words without getting overwhelmed

Long German words aren’t a memory test — they’re more like puzzles. And once you know how to approach them, they become a lot less intimidating. Here’s a simple, repeatable strategy:

• Break it into parts. Start by slicing the word into smaller chunks. Look for familiar roots: Versicherung, Gesetz, Nummer. These are your anchor points.
• Identify the root word. What’s the core idea? In Hausratsversicherung, the root is Versicherung (insurance). Everything before it just makes it more specific.
• Use context. Don’t try to learn words in a vacuum. Study and use them in sentences, emails, documents and more. Real use gives real meaning.
• Repetition beats memorization. You don’t need a flashcard for Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung — you just need to see it on enough highway signs.

That’s where Lingoda can help. In live, structured classes with native-level teachers, you’ll hear words in context and practice them in conversation until they feel natural.

What is the longest German word ever used?

Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz (63 letters) — a former legal term.

Are long German words common in everyday conversation?

Some are, especially in admin or work contexts. But monster-length words are usually avoided in casual speech.

Long words, shortcuts to language mastery

Long German words aren’t here to scare you. Many of them are practical, everyday terms, especially in work, legal and health contexts. When you break them down and see them in use, they stop being intimidating.

Remember: long words are often just short ideas stacked together. Learn them in pieces, use them in context, and practice regularly. Set yourself a “word of the week” challenge: pick one chunky German word, learn it, use it in sentences and try it out loud. Lingoda’s live classes are perfect for this kind of real-time, real-language learning.Tackle them one at a time, and soon you’ll be casually dropping Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung into conversations like it’s no big deal. Because for you, it won’t be.

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10 cultural mistakes expats make in their first month in Germany

Ever asked a German local about the quirks of daily life? Chances are, they’ll say there’s nothing unusual at all. But what feels perfectly normal to a German can be completely bewildering to someone from abroad. 

For expats who have recently landed in Germany, these differences often add up to a general sense of culture shock. The good news? Many have already attempted the move to Germany and made mistakes that you can learn from. By taking their stories to heart, you can ensure a smoother experience for yourself.

In this article, we’ll help you prepare for new situations and cultural surprises. We’ll also discuss some measures you can take to get a headstart on your life in Germany.

• Everyday habits that can make life in Germany more challenging
• Adapting to a new professional culture
• Habits that quietly hold back your integration
• Social norms that are easy to miss (but matter)

Everyday habits that can make life in Germany more challenging

Moving to Germany comes with its fair share of challenges — from looking for a flat to finding new friends and a job. But there are ways to make it all a little easier. And just as important as what you should do is what you shouldn’t.

1. Assuming English will be enough 

It really depends on where you move to in Germany. In big cities like Berlin, many offices operate in English and the barista at the nearby coffee shop will probably switch to English if you struggle to say, “Ich hätte gerne einen Kaffee” (“I’d like a coffee”). 

But don’t be fooled. Getting by in English is not the same as fully integrating. German is still the language of everyday life in cities like Frankfurt and Berlin, and it’s easy to feel isolated if you can’t connect to others properly. As André Klein, author of the Learn German with Stories series, puts it, “Language isn’t just a tool for communication — it’s a key to understanding how people think, live and connect.”

That doesn’t mean you need to become fluent in your first weeks or months, though. Take it easy, start with key phrases and use every opportunity you get to practice your German skills. You’ll see it pays off with time. 

2. Delaying your Anmeldung appointment

This is a big one among expats: the Anmeldung. This residency registration is your golden ticket to life in Germany. It unlocks access to essential services like health insurance, bank accounts, mobile plans and basically everything else you need in everyday life. 

As there can be long waiting lists in some regions in Germany, it’s best to book your Anmeldung appointment online before you arrive — weeks in advance, if possible. 

3. Missing the subtle rules of public spaces

German public spaces adhere to subtle — but strict — social codes. Here are the most important ones to look out for: 

• Respect the quiet hours: No noise is allowed in public areas between certain times of the day. Depending on your region, quiet hours can start at 10 p.m. and last until 7 a.m. 
• Don’t walk inside bike lanes. You’ll likely be called out for it — and rightfully so, as it’s also dangerous. These lanes often run alongside sidewalks but are clearly marked and strictly respected.
• When using the escalators, always stand on the right side so people walking up can pass you on the left. 
• Sorting trash is a civic duty in Germany. Not following the correct sorting procedures for your region could make you an unpopular neighbor.

The best strategy? Watch and learn. Subtle cultural cues are everywhere — just follow the locals’ lead.

Adapting to a new professional culture

Starting a new job is always exciting and a little stressful. Doing it in another country is even more so. Germany’s professional culture has some (often unspoken) rules that you should try to learn and follow. 

Here are some common mistakes and experiences expats face in their first days in the office.

4. Jumping into informality too quickly at work

There are two ways to address someone in German. You can either use du for informal situations or Sie for formal ones. 

Especially in business culture, always default to Sie and use your colleagues’ last names until they “offer” the du. Once you’re on more familiar terms, you may get the go-ahead to switch to first names. 

5. Learning the value of directness in German conversations

Depending on the cultural norms you’re used to, German speakers can seem quite harsh in their communications. But this is by design, as directness is highly valued in German culture and often prioritized over the more verbose forms of politeness. 

It’s important to remember that directness does not always equal rudeness. Feedback is meant to be clear, honest and actionable — certainly not personal. If something feels off, it’s best to ask questions honestly. You may even be appreciated for showing initiative.

6. Overworking in a culture that values balance

Working late hours won’t prove your dedication or willingness to work hard. On the contrary, it might suggest poor time management. 

As an employee, try to focus on the quality of your work (which doesn’t give you license to miss deadlines). Time off is also highly respected in Germany because it gives employees necessary time to recharge. 

Habits that quietly hold back your integration

While it’s hard to tell exactly when someone is “fully integrated,” it’s painfully easy to tell when they’re not. In the beginning, the following habits are most likely the culprits.

7. Skipping out on language or integration courses

You might have nailed the basics within your first month — found a flat, landed a job — but still feel like an outsider. This is why a support system is important. A language or integration course offers more than just classroom time. It helps you feel more confident and connected with the place you’re living in. 

If you’re looking for affordable or free options, check out the offers at the Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (BAMF; the federal office for migration and refugees) or the local Volkshochschule (adult education center).

8. Expecting services to work like they do at home

Maybe fast digital processes and personalized customer service were the norm in your country of origin. If that’s the case, adjusting to strict opening hours, limited flexibility and bureaucratic paperwork can be challenging. 

But these are some of the hurdles you’ll face when attempting to access important services like health insurance or work permits. Although the adjustment can be frustrating at first, try to accept the local norms. It will make it easier for you to adapt to the German system. 

Social norms that are easy to miss (but matter)

A quick internet search will reveal that there are many expats in Germany who struggle with making connections. Germans have earned a reputation for being inaccessible and cold. But is this really true?

In reality, social connections in Germany just happen a little differently. Here are a couple of early mistakes to avoid on your way to making friends.

9. Expecting friendly chit-chat right away

In Germany, directness isn’t just for the boardroom — it extends to social life, too. Being overly chatty can be seen as needy, which is why a lot of people might seem reserved to you at first. But that doesn’t mean they’re unfriendly.

German friendships are slow to build but incredibly solid once they’re established. Give it time, because the following quote rings true: “German friendships are like oak trees — slow to grow, but strong and lasting once rooted.” (Adam Fletcher, author of How to Be German).

10. Overlooking how important punctuality really is

Being ten minutes late for a work call is unacceptable. In a society where punctuality is the Holy Grail, people will think you’re not valuing their time if you don’t make an effort to be punctual. 

Aim to arrive five minutes early. It’s a small habit that speaks volumes about your reliability.

Start with understanding, end with belonging

Your first month in Germany will probably feel like a cultural crash course — and that’s perfectly fine. Even well-prepared professionals can make missteps. Try to be patient with yourself, and remember you don’t need to know it all in the beginning.

Join local communities. Sign up for a language course. Get involved in neighborhood events. Every small step will help you feel more at home and turn new surroundings into familiar ground.

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‘Avoir’ conjugation: How to use this essential French verb

Mastering avoir conjugation is essential for anyone learning French. 

As the second most common verb in French after être (to be), avoir (to have) serves important functions in everyday communication. It notably helps to express possession, state a person’s age, and convey a wide range of emotions and physical states. Beyond these fundamental uses, avoir also functions as an auxiliary verb to form compound tenses like the passé composé. 

This comprehensive guide will walk you through the conjugation of avoir in all major tenses, including present, past, future and conditional forms, along with the subjunctive and the imperative. You’ll also discover how to use avoir in some common idiomatic expressions that can help your French sound more fluent.

• Present tense conjugation of avoir
• ‘Avoir’ in the past: ‘Passé composé’ and beyond
• Future and conditional tenses with avoir
• Subjunctive and imperative forms of avoir
• Common idiomatic expressions using avoir

Present tense conjugation of ‘avoir’

Here’s the conjugation table for the verb avoir in the present simple tense, with some examples for each person:

‘Avoir’ in the past: ‘Passé composé’ and beyond

To speak French fluently, you also need to master other French tenses. 

Let’s start with past tenses: the compound past, the imperfect and the past perfect. Below, you’ll find everything you need to know about the conjugation of the verb avoir in these past tenses.

‘Passé composé’: ‘Avoir’ as an auxiliary verb

The compound past tense is used to describe actions that were completed in the past.

It’s formed with the present tense of an auxiliary verb (avoir or être), followed by the past participle.

The past participle is formed by adding specific endings to the verb stem:

• “é” with verbs ending in “-er”;
• “i” with most verbs ending in “-ir”;
• “u” with regular verbs ending in “-re”;
• other endings including “-u”, “-is” and “-it” with irregular verbs.

Here’s a summary table with examples:

The past participle of the verb avoir is eu. For example:

• Elle a eu des cadeaux pour son anniversaire. (She received gifts for her birthday.)

‘Imparfait’: Describing ongoing or repeated past actions

The imperfect tense is used to describe habitual, background or ongoing past actions.

It’s formed by adding imperfect endings (-ais, -ait…) to the verb stem (av-).

‘Plus-que-parfait’: The ‘past of the past’

The past perfect is used to express an action that happened before another past action.

It’s formed with the imperfect form of avoir, followed by the past participle of the verb.

Future and conditional tenses with ‘avoir’

Now that you’ve mastered the conjugation of avoir in the various past tenses, let’s examine two other essential verb tenses in French: the future and the conditional.

‘Futur simple’: Expressing certainty or scheduled events

The simple future is used to describe events that will happen.

It’s formed with the future stem of the verb avoir (aur-), followed by future endings.

‘Conditionnel présent’: Expressing politeness or hypotheticals

The present conditional tense is used to describe events that would happen in certain conditions.

It’s formed with the future stem of the verb avoir (aur-), followed by imperfect endings.

Subjunctive and imperative forms of ‘avoir’

Let’s now examine how avoir is used in the present subjunctive and imperative forms.

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‘Subjonctif présent’: Expressing doubt, emotion or necessity

The present subjunctive is used after expressions of doubt, emotion or obligation. For instance, you’ll often find it in sentences starting with “Je doute que”, “J’aimerais que” or “Il faut que”.

It’s formed with the irregular subjunctive stems of the verb avoir (ai- and ay-), followed by subjunctive endings.

‘Impératif’: Giving direct commands

The imperative form is used to express direct orders, instructions or encouragement. As imperative commands are always directed to someone, this form is only used with the French pronouns for “you” (singular and plural) and “we” (in which case the speaker is included in the group receiving the command).

Here’s a table with examples to help you remember how it’s formed:

Common idiomatic expressions using ‘avoir’

First, let’s remember that the verb avoir is commonly used for the following purposes:

• To express possession.

Example: J’ai deux voitures. (I have two cars.)

• To state a person’s age.
  
  Example: J’ai 25 ans. (I am 25 years old.)
  
• In two common expressions: il y a (there is) and il n’y a pas (there is not).

In French, idiomatic expressions using the verb avoir are also very common in everyday language.  Idiomatic expressions often don’t translate literally, and context may be necessary to understand their idiomatic usage. It’s a great idea to memorize these!

Here are some examples of common expressions using the verb avoir:

• Avoir faim (to be hungry)
  • Ex.: J’ai eu faim toute la journée. (I was hungry all day.)
• Avoir peur ( to be afraid)
  • Ex.: N’aie pas peur, tout ira bien. (Don’t be afraid, everything will be fine.)
• Avoir raison (to be right)
  • Ex.: Vous avez eu raison de refuser. (You were right to refuse.)
• Avoir sommeil (to be sleepy)
  • Ex.: J’ai terriblement sommeil. (I am terribly sleepy.)
• Avoir besoin de (to need)
  • Ex.: J’ai besoin de me reposer. (I need to rest.)
• Avoir l’air (to seem)
  • Ex.: Il a l’air très fatigué. (He seems very tired.)
• Avoir du mal à (to have difficulty)
  • Ex.: J’ai du mal à respirer. (I have difficulty breathing.)

The verb avoir is also used in more metaphorical idiomatic expressions:

• Avoir la pêche (to be happy; literally, “to have the peach”)
  • Ex.: J’ai la pêche dès que je te vois ! (I feel happy as soon as I see you!) 
• Avoir le cafard (to feel sad; literally, “to have the cockroach”)
  • Ex.: Elle a le cafard depuis qu’il est parti. (She has been feeling sad since he left.)
• Avoir du pain sur la planche (to have a lot to do; literally, “to have bread on the board”)
  • Ex.: C’est chargé en ce moment : j’ai du pain sur la planche ! (It’s busy right now: I have a lot to do!)
• Avoir le bras long (to be influential; literally, “to have a long arm”)
  • Ex.: Attention, nous avons le bras long ! (Be careful, we are influential!)

There are many other French idiomatic expressions with avoir. The good news is that they are fun to learn!

Your next step: Mastering ‘avoir’ and beyond

Mastering the avoir conjugation is a fundamental step in learning French. As we’ve seen, avoir is essential for expressing possession, forming compound tenses and creating idiomatic expressions that can help your French sound more fluent.

With Lingoda’s online French grammar lessons, you can learn from certified and native-level teachers who’ll help you practice essential verbs like avoir and être in live, interactive sessions. 

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Design, team spirit and a dash of bravery: An interview with Bruna Monte, Marketing Designer at Lingoda

Bruna’s a marketing designer at Lingoda and a big fan of bold ideas. She’s all about turning creative concepts into real campaigns, whether it’s featuring students from around the world or testing fun new formats on social. In this interview, she shares why bravery matters, how her team helps her push boundaries, and why good translations need a human touch. Plus, the one desk item she didn’t invite: her cat. Get a peek into Bruna’s world of design, teamwork, and curiosity!

Like what we’re about? You might just be our next teammate so check our career page!

Thanks for making time for us, Bruna! You are a marketing designer at Lingoda – What first drew you to design and what keeps you passionate about it today?

I used to play around with design tools for fun when I was younger, and during my Communication Studies bachelor, I found out I could actually work with design for a living. It was so fun that I couldn’t see that as work in the beginning. What makes me passionate about design today is how much everything changes all the time, with AI, new tools, new styles… I feel like today, everything is possible in Design, and that’s super exciting.

Can you walk us through a project you’re especially proud of? What made it special?

I’m really proud of the New Year campaign of 2023/2024 at Lingoda. I supported the art direction and production of the visuals for the online marketing campaign. It was special because we brought real Lingoda students to Berlin for a photo and video shoot, we got to spotlight them and cheer on their wins. In the campaign, each student shared what their biggest language win was in the language they were learning. For example, one American student had studied French with Lingoda and was able to move to France to work in a Michelin-starred restaurant, turning a language goal into a life-changing career move.

What’s the most unusual or unexpected thing you’ve learned while working at Lingoda?

An unusual thing I learnt is that translations are not a simple thing. We don’t just rely on AI or Google Translate for translating our marketing campaigns; we need real people to translate and proofread. This is essential to keep the brand tone of voice and make sure it really resonates with students. It needs to feel personal, because it is.

Looking at our five company values, which one are you connecting to the most? Can you explain why?

I connect most with “Be brave.” As creative people, we are constantly challenged to think outside the box and try new things, and for that, we need to speak up and collaborate as a team.

What’s one thing you’ve learned from your teammates that changed the way you work?

My teammates boosted my confidence at work by creating a supportive environment where we encourage each other to try new things even if they fail – that’s ok, we learn from our failures. For example, on Social Media, we are currently in an exploring phase – testing new formats, new ways of communicating, and we can let our creativity run wild without much fear about whether it works or not. When you don’t restrain where your mind can go, the odds of getting to something really creative and interesting are much higher.

What item is never missing on your desk?

Post-its, a cup of coffee and my cat (he’s uninvited though!)

Reflexive verbs in German: How to use, conjugate and understand them

Want to talk about your daily routine, feelings or thoughts in German? You’ll need reflexive verbs.

Brushing your teeth, getting dressed, introducing yourself: these are all situations that demand reflexive verbs in German. You’ll come across these verbs far more often than in English, so it’s worth understanding how they work.

In this article, you’ll learn how reflexive verbs are formed, when to use the accusative or dative case and how to combine a reflexive verb with the right reflexive pronoun. You’ll also get a list of common reflexive verbs and plenty of example sentences to see them in action.

• What are reflexive verbs in German?
• Understanding reflexive pronouns in German
• List of common reflexive verbs in German
• Reflexive verbs in action: Sentence examples
• Reflexive verbs in different tenses
• FAQS

What are reflexive verbs in German?

Reflexive verbs in German are verbs that use a reflexive pronoun to express an action the subject performs on itself. For example:

• Ich wasche mich. (I wash myself.)

While reflexive pronouns are often optional in English, they’re required in German. Moreover, German features an impressively long list of reflexive verbs — some of which don’t exist in English at all:

• Ich bewerbe mich. (I apply.)
• Ich habe mich geärgert. (I got annoyed.)

Reflexive vs. non-reflexive verbs: What’s the difference?

In German, some verbs can be used with or without a reflexive pronoun — and this can completely change the meaning of a sentence. 

Take the verb erinnern. When used reflexively (sich erinnern), it refers to someone remembering something themselves. In the non-reflexive form (jemanden erinnern), it means reminding someone else of something.

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Understanding reflexive pronouns in German

German reflexive pronouns typically accompany reflexive verbs and change depending on whether the verb requires the accusative or dative case. 

Take a look at the table below to learn and memorize the cases:

If you’d like to learn more, read our short guide to reflexive pronouns in German.

How to choose between accusative and dative

The choice between accusative and dative reflexive pronouns depends on the object the action is being directed toward. 

Reflexive verbs usually take the accusative, especially when the subject is doing something to itself and there’s no other direct object:

• Ich rasiere mich. (I’m shaving.)
• Du hast dich verlaufen. (You got lost.)

If there’s another direct object in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun switches to the dative:

• Ich rasiere mir den Bart. (I’m shaving my beard.)
• Du kaufst dir ein neues Handy. (You’re buying yourself a new cell phone.)

List of common reflexive verbs in German

Top 25 A1-A2 reflexive verbs (with translation)

Let’s start with the most common and important reflexive verbs you’ll come across early in your German learning journey:

Accusative case

Dative case

Intermediate reflexive verbs for B1 learners

Now we’ll look at reflexive verbs typically learned at the intermediate level. These are used to talk about more complex actions, personal decisions, emotions or social situations:

Accusative case

Dative case

As you can see in the lists above, some reflexive verbs are part of the group of verbs with prepositions in German. You’ll need to learn these combinations by heart, because the prepositions often can’t be guessed from the verb alone.

Reflexive verbs in action: Sentence examples

Now that you’ve learned which of the most common verbs in German are reflexive, it’s time to see how they work in real sentences.

Sentences with accusative reflexive verbs

• Ich interessiere mich sehr für Kunst und freue mich auf die Ausstellung morgen. (I’m very interested in art and I’m looking forward to the exhibition tomorrow.)
• Wir treffen uns um acht und verabschieden uns gegen Mittag. (We’re meeting at eight and saying goodbye around midday.)
• Sie erinnert sich nicht mehr an den Namen des Hotels. (She no longer remembers the name of the hotel.)
• Setz dich bitte, der Unterricht beginnt gleich. (Please sit down, the lesson is about to start.)

Sentences with dative reflexive verbs

• Wir sehen uns heute Abend einen neuen Film an. (We’re watching a new movie tonight.)
• Ich habe mir überlegt, im Sommer einen Deutschkurs zu machen. (I’ve been thinking about taking a German course in the summer.)
• Er hat sich gestern eine neue Jacke gekauft. (He bought himself a new jacket yesterday.)
• Nachdem ich zu Hause angekommen bin, wasche ich mir immer zuerst die Hände. (After coming home, I always wash my hands first.)

How context changes the meaning

Among reflexive verbs, the meaning can change depending on the case used. For example, let’s consider sich vorstellen:

• Ich stelle mich vor. (I introduce myself.) = accusative
• Ich stelle mir etwas vor. (I imagine something.) = dative

Compare these two examples:

• Du hast dich bei den Gästen vorgestellt. (You introduced yourself to the guests.)
• Stell dir vor, wir könnten die Welt bereisen! (Imagine, we could travel the world!)

As you can see, a small grammatical change can lead to a big difference in meaning.

Reflexive verbs in different tenses

Reflexive verbs in German follow the usual rules regarding tense, but it’s important to remember that the reflexive pronoun must always match the subject in both person and case.

Let’s take a closer look at how these verbs behave in different tenses.

Present (Präsens)

• Ich verliebe mich. (I fall in love.)
• Ich putze mir die Zähne. (I brush my teeth.)

Here, the verb is conjugated as usual and the reflexive pronoun follows the verb.

Simple past (Präteritum)

• Ich verliebte mich. (I fell in love.)
• Ich putzte mir die Zähne. (I brushed my teeth.)

In the simple past, only the verb form changes. The position of the reflexive pronoun remains the same as in the present tense.

Present perfect (Perfekt)

• Ich habe mich verliebt. (I have fallen in love.)
• Ich habe mir die Zähne geputzt. (I have brushed my teeth.)

In the present perfect, a compound tense, the reflexive pronoun is placed between the auxiliary verb (haben) and the past participle.

Simple future (Futur I)

• Ich werde mich verlieben. (I will fall in love.)
• Ich werde mir die Zähne putzen. (I will brush my teeth.)

The simple future is also a compound tense. The reflexive pronoun comes between the auxiliary verb werden and the infinitive of the main verb.

Modal verbs + reflexive verbs

Reflexive verbs can also be used with modal verbs like möchten, sollen, können, wollen, dürfen and müssen. In this case, the reflexive pronoun comes between the modal verb and the infinitive of the main verb:

• Ich möchte mich anmelden. (I would like to register.)
• Ich muss mir neue Schuhe kaufen. (I have to buy new shoes.)

How do I know when to use accusative or dative with reflexive verbs?

When the action is directed at the subject and there’s no other object, use the accusative reflexive pronoun. If there’s another object in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun takes the dative case.

Is sich freuen accusative or dative?

Sich freuen takes the accusative reflexive pronoun, because the action is directed at the subject and the verb doesn’t require an additional object.

Reflexive verbs: One step closer to confident, correct German 

Reflexive verbs play an important role in German, as they appear more frequently than in English. They’re not difficult to learn since they follow standard verb patterns, but you’ll need to know when to use the accusative or dative pronoun and be aware that their meaning can change depending on context.

Whether you’re just starting with German A1 or working toward German B1, Lingoda offers online language courses that provide structure and support. With small group classes and real-life communication, you’ll start speaking with confidence from Day One.

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Wo, wohin, woher: How to say ‘where’ in German

Whether you ask someone to describe their location, origin or destination in English, you typically rely on just one word: where. In German, things aren’t so simple. The English “where” splits into three distinct German words — wo, wohin and woher — each with its own specific meaning.

Each of these three question words serves a different purpose, leaving no room for misunderstandings. In this article, we’ll explain exactly what each word means and review how to use them in everyday situations.

• Introducing wo, wohin and woher
• Wo: When asking about static locations
• Wohin: When asking about direction
• Woher: When asking about an origin or source
• FAQs

Introducing ‘wo’, ‘wohin’ and ‘woher’

Wo, wohin and woher all serve different purposes and refer to specific types of information:

• Wo is used to ask where someone is located.
• Wohin is used to ask where someone or something is going.
• Woher is used to ask where someone or something is coming from. 

To clarify the difference, let’s put this in other words:

• Wo asks about a static location (i.e., where something or someone is).
• Wohin asks about a direction or destination (i.e., where someone or something is going).
• Woher asks about the origin (i.e. where someone or something is coming from).

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‘Wo’: When asking about static locations

What ‘wo’ means and when to use it

Wo means “where” and is used to ask about location. As a rule of thumb, use wo when there’s no movement involved — for example, when you’re asking about a static place or position.

It can help to associate wo with the question, “In what place?”. 

Use wo when asking about:

• Someone’s current location
• The location of an object
• Where something is taking place

In German, stationary positions are usually expressed with dative prepositions. This is why you’ll typically encounter the dative case in answers to questions with wo. 

Here’s an example:

• Wo ist die Katze? (Where is the cat?)
• Die Katze ist auf dem Sofa. (The cat is on the sofa.)

The prepositional phrase “auf dem Sofa” is formed by using the preposition auf with the dative case of the noun (dem Sofa).

Typical sentence structure and verbs

To give you a better understanding of how wo is used in German, we’ve compiled a table of basic German sentences with verbs that indicate a static location or state. These verbs often appear in “Wo?” questions. 

‘Wohin’: When asking about direction

What ‘wohin’ means and when to use it

Wohin translates to “where to” in English. It’s used when asking about direction or destination — that is, whenever there’s movement or a change of location involved.

Unlike wo, which asks about static positions, wohin is all about the movement from one place to another.

The answers to “Wohin?” questions are often formed with the accusative case. 

Here’s an example:

• Wohin fährst du? (Where are you driving to?)
• Ich fahre in die Schule. (I’m driving to school.)

The prepositional phrase “in die Schule” is formed by combining the preposition in with the accusative case of the noun (die Schule).

Typical sentence structure and verbs

Are you curious how questions with wohin are used in everyday German? The following examples all follow a typical sentence structure: wohin + verb of motion + destination (accusative).

‘Woher’: When asking about origin or source

What ‘woher’ means and when to use it

Woher is used to ask about the origin of a person or object. Use it when you’d like to know where someone or something is coming from.

Typical prepositions for answers to questions with woher include aus (from a place) and von (from a general direction, person etc.). These prepositions are always followed by the dative case.

Here’s an example: 

• Woher kommst du? (Where are you from?)
• Ich komme aus Deutschland. (I am from Germany.)

The prepositional phrase “aus Deutschland” is formed by combining the preposition aus with the dative case of the noun (Deutschland), which in this case has no article.

Common verbs and phrases

Just like with wo and wohin, there are several verbs and prepositions that are deeply connected with the question, “Woher?”. 

Fun fact: Woher kommst du? (Where are you from?) can have different layers of meaning. Someone could be asking about your heritage, but depending on the tone and context, they could also be referring to where you physically were before arriving at your present location.

When should I use ‘wo’ vs ‘wohin’?

Use wo when you’re asking about a static location. Use wohin when you’re asking about a direction or where something is going, which involves movement.

Is ‘woher’ a compound word?

Woher is a compound word in German. It combines wo (where) and her (from here) to form a single word. It’s used to ask about the origin or source of something.

Time to practice ‘wo’, ‘wohin’ and ‘woher’

Now that we’ve talked about the difference between wo, wohin and woher, it’s time to put that knowledge into practice. These three small words can help you form basic German questions and take the next step toward sounding more natural and confident in German conversations. 

The key is to remember what you’re asking for. Wo is for a static location, wohin is for direction and movement, and woher is for origin.

If your goal is to learn German, a language course with Lingoda can help you feel more confident and prepared. Our native-level teachers offer online classes in small group sizes and make sure you start speaking from Day One. 

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‘Haben’ conjugation in German: Forms, tenses and uses

Few German verbs come up as regularly in daily conversation as haben. This all-important verb means “to have,” and it’s used to talk about everything from possession to personal experience. Haben also plays a key role in German as an auxiliary verb.

In this guide, you’ll learn how to conjugate haben in every tense. We’ll run through some practical examples and demonstrate when (and why) to use haben instead of sein. 

• What does haben mean and why is it important?
• Haben in the present tense (Präsens)
• Haben in the simple past (Imperfekt)
• Haben in the present perfect (Perfekt)
• Haben in the past perfect (Plusquamperfekt)
• Haben in the future tense (Futur I and Futur II)
• Haben in the subjunctive mood (Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II)
• Haben as an auxiliary verb
• FAQs

What does ‘haben’ mean and why is it important?

The German word haben means “to have.” It belongs to a special category of verbs in German that have two roles. 

In the first of these roles, haben functions as a main verb that indicates possession (e.g., Ich habe eine Schwester. → I have a sister.). 

In its second role, haben functions as an auxiliary verb. When used as an auxiliary verb, haben contributes to the formation of the present perfect (Perfekt) and the past perfect (Plusquamperfekt) tenses.

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‘Haben’ in the present tense (‘Präsens’)

If you want to express that something belongs to you or is currently in your possession, use the present tense of haben. This form is especially important to learn because it’s also used to form the present perfect tense. 

Here’s how haben is conjugated in the present tense for the different subjects in German:

Present tense usage examples 

Now that you know how haben is conjugated in the present tense, you’re probably wondering how it can be used in German sentences. Here are some examples:

‘Haben’ in the simple past (‘Imperfekt’)

Of course, you’re not always talking about having something in the present tense. Sometimes, you need to express that something once belonged to you in the past. The first form of the past tenses, the simple past, is also called the Präteritum or Imperfekt in German. It looks like this:

Simple past tense usage examples 

In the following table, we provide some examples for the usage of haben in the simple past.

When to use ‘Imperfekt’ vs. ‘Perfekt’

If you’ve been learning German for a while, you might have noticed that the Imperfekt is rarely used in spoken conversations. This is not only true for the simple past of haben, but for all German verbs. 

Most of the time, German speakers use the Perfekt tense in conversations, because it sounds more natural to them. While the simple past is still used in written German, it has almost fully disappeared from spoken German. Although no one will think you’re strange for using it, try to avoid the simple past when speaking if your goal is to sound more like a native. 

‘Haben’ in the present perfect (‘Perfekt’)

Forming the ‘Perfekt’ with ‘haben’ 

As mentioned above, we need the present tense of the verb haben and the past participle of the main verb to form the present perfect in German. So, what happens if we want to use the present perfect of haben? You guessed right: we use the same structure.  

Form the present perfect with a version of haben in the present tense and the past participle gehabt. The table below shows how to do this for each of the German subjects:

Practical use cases in conversation

The participle gehabt appears when talking about past possession or experiences. For example:

• Ich habe gestern Kopfschmerzen gehabt. (I had a headache yesterday.)
• Er hat viel Stress gehabt. (He was very stressed.)

‘Haben’ in the past perfect (‘Plusquamperfekt’)

The past perfect tense in German is not used very often. But it does fulfill a certain important function. It can be used to express events that have happened before another past event. Here’s an example:

• Ich hatte schon gegessen, bevor ich in das Restaurant kam. (I had already eaten before I entered the restaurant.)

For the listener, it becomes clear that one action (eating) happened even further in the past than the other action (entering the restaurant). 

When you want to form the past perfect tense of haben, it looks like this:

‘Haben’ in the future tense (‘Futur I’ and ‘Futur II’)

There are two future tenses in German: Futur I and Futur II. While both of them serve different purposes, you’ll seldomly hear someone use Futur II because it can make sentences overly complicated. Most German speakers avoid it in natural conversations. 

With that in mind, let’s start with Futur I.

‘Futur I’ – Talking about future events

Futur I is used to talk about future events that are about to happen. To form it, combine a conjugated form of werden with the infinitive of your main verb. 

In the case of haben, the structure looks like this: 

(conjugation of) werden + haben (infinitive form)

Here’s an example: 

• Ich werde morgen Abend mehr Zeit haben. (I will have more time tomorrow evening.)

‘Futur II’ – Describing completed future actions

There’s a reason why Futur II is seldomly used in spoken German conversations: sentences can become overly long when it’s used. To form the Futur II of haben, combine: 

(conjugation of) werden + gehabt (past participle) + haben (infinitive)

Here’s an example:

• Am Ende des Monats wirst du genug Geld gehabt haben. (By the end of the month, you will have had enough money.)

The table shows you what that looks like for each of the subjects:

‘Haben’ in the subjunctive mood (‘Konjunktiv I’ and ‘Konjunktiv II’)

Haben can also be used in reported speech or when you want to be polite — when you’re ordering a coffee in German, for instance. In the following, you’ll learn how to use haben in the subjunctive mood.

‘Konjunktiv I’ for reported speech

The Konjunktiv I is used for reported speech. Use it when you want to quote someone or when you’re not quite sure if a piece of information is correct. Mostly, we use the Konjunktiv I for papers or in literature. It’s seldomly used in direct speech. 

Here’s an example:

• Manche sagen, er habe eine Katze. (Some say, he has a cat.)

‘Konjunktiv II’ for hypotheticals

Konjunktiv II is used to express hypothetical situations. It’s very common to use the Konjunktiv II to express politeness in German. Here’s an example of what this looks like for the verb haben:

• Ich hätte gerne ein Stück Kuchen. (I’d like to have a piece of cake.)

‘Haben’ as an auxiliary verb

In German, haben functions as an auxiliary verb (Hilfsverb) to form compound tenses such as the present perfect (Perfekt), past perfect (Plusquamperfekt) and future perfect (Futur II).

These tenses are used to describe completed actions in the present, past or future. The auxiliary verb haben is combined with the past participle (Partizip II) of the main verb.

Here’s what that looks like for the different tenses:

In German, the choice between the auxiliary verbs haben and sein depends on the main verb. Most verbs are paired with haben, especially when they have a direct object or describe a general action. For example, Ich habe das Buch gelesen (I have read the book) uses haben, because lesen (to read) is a transitive verb.

In contrast, sein is used with a smaller group of intransitive verbs that express movement or a change of state, such as gehen (to go), kommen (to come) and aufstehen (to get up). These verbs don’t take a direct object and often describe a transition or motion from one place or condition to another. So, a sentence like Er ist nach Hause gegangen (He has gone home) would use the appropriately conjugated form of sein (in this case, ist).

What is the conjugation of haben in the present tense?

In the present tense, haben is an irregular verb and changes depending on the subject. The forms are: ich habe, du hast, er/sie/es hat, wir haben, ihr habt and sie haben.

Is haben a regular or irregular verb in German?

Haben is an irregular verb in German. Its stem changes in some forms, such as du hast and er hat, rather than following the regular conjugation pattern.

From charts to confidence: Learn the ‘haben’ conjugation 

The German verb haben helps you express possession, form perfect tenses, and structure complex sentences. Haben appears in almost every conversation. In this guide, you’ve learned how haben functions in the present, past, perfect and future tenses, as well as in the subjunctive mood and as an auxiliary verb.

Knowing how to use haben is essential for German learners, which is why it’s part of the German A1 curriculum when you learn German with Lingoda. With native-level teachers, small group classes and a CEFR-aligned curriculum, you’ll enhance your German skills when it best fits your schedule.

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Mastering the German past participle (Partizip II): A complete guide

Speaking German without using the past participle is almost impossible. Whether you’re talking about what you did last night or expecting something to be finished by tomorrow, you need the past participle.

But what exactly is the past participle (or Partizip II, as it’s called in German)? To keep things simple, we can say that the Partizip II is a verb form that expresses completed actions. You’ll find it in compound tenses like the Perfekt, Plusquamperfekt and Futur II, as well as in the passive voice. It even functions as an adjective.

When you study German verbs, the third form after Infinitiv and Präteritum is the Partizip II. You can usually map the German Partizip II onto an English equivalent. In the table below, it’s the third verb in the sequence (following the Infinitiv and Präteritum forms in German):

• How to form the German past participle
• When and how to use the past participle
• Choosing between haben and sein as auxiliary verbs
• Practice makes perfect: Exercises and resources
• FAQs

How to form the German past participle

Regular (weak) verbs

For regular (i.e., “weak”) verbs, the past participle is formed by removing the –en ending from the infinitive to isolate the verb stem, then adding the prefix ge– and the suffix –t:

• machen → mach → gemacht
• spielen → spiel → gespielt

Irregular (strong) verbs

For irregular verbs, also known as “strong” verbs, the past participle is less predictable. These verbs still take the prefix ge-, but they typically end in –en and their stem may change (a vowel shift known as Ablaut). 

Because these verbs don’t follow a strict pattern, you’ll often need to memorize them. Don’t worry, though; patterns do start to emerge with time and practice:

• sehen → gesehen
• bleiben → geblieben

Mixed verbs

Mixed verbs combine features of both regular and irregular verbs. Like irregular verbs, they change their stem vowel, but like regular verbs, they end in –t. They also take the ge– prefix, following the standard pattern:

• bringen → gebracht
• denken → gedacht

Mixed verbs must be learned individually. But since the group is quite small, memorizing them doesn’t pose too much of a challenge.

Special cases

In addition to the three main verb groups, there are several special cases in the formation of the past participle. 

All verbs ending in –ieren do not take the prefix ge-. So, studieren becomes studiert, not gestudiert. The same rule applies to verbs with inseparable prefixes such as be-, ver– or ent-. For example, verstehen becomes verstanden.

Verbs with separable prefixes do take ge-, but it’s inserted between the prefix and the stem. For example, aufmachen becomes aufgemacht.

Verbs whose stems end in –d or –t add –et instead of just –t to make pronunciation easier, as in arbeiten, which becomes gearbeitet.

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When and how to use the past participle

In compound tenses

The Partizip II is fundamental in most German compound tenses and is always used in combination with either haben or sein as the auxiliary verb.

In the Perfekt, it describes completed actions in the past, especially in spoken language. 

• Structure: haben/sein (present simple) + Partizip II
• Example: Ich habe gegessen. (I have eaten.)

The Plusquamperfekt expresses an action that occurred before another past event and uses the past participle to do so.

• Structure: haben/sein (past simple) + Partizip II
• Example: Ich hatte gegessen, bevor du kamst. (I had eaten before you came.)

In the Futur II, the past participle is used with the future form of haben or sein to indicate that something will have been completed by a specific point in the future.

• Structure: haben/sein (future simple) + Partizip II
• Example: Ich werde gegessen haben. (I will have eaten.)

In the passive voice

In passive constructions, the focus is on the receiver of the action, rather than the doer. To form these sentences in German, the past participle is combined with the auxiliary verb werden, which is conjugated based on the tense:

• Das Buch wird gelesen. (The book is being read.)
• Das Buch wurde gelesen. (The book was read.)
• Das Buch ist gelesen worden. (The book has been read.)

As adjectives

In German, the past participle can also function as an adjective. When used this way, it typically describes a noun by implying that an action has been completed. 

For example: Die geschlossene Tür translates to “the closed door.” Here, geschlossen is the past participle of schließen (to close) and acts as an adjective that describes the state of the door. (An “e” is added at the end of the adjective to ensure it agrees with the gender, number and case of the noun.)

Choosing between “haben” and “sein” as auxiliary verbs

All compound tenses in German require combining the past participle with one of the auxiliary verbs, either haben or sein. Both auxiliary verbs are irregular and rank among the most common German verbs, but they are paired with different types of main verbs.

Sein goes with verbs that indicate motion or a change of state, which are typically intransitive, meaning they do not take a direct object. 

For example: Ich bin gegangen. (I have gone.)

Haben applies to most other verbs, especially transitive ones, which take one or more objects. 

For example: Ich habe einen Apfel gegessen. (I ate an apple.)

Practice makes perfect: Exercises and resources

Now that you know how the German past participle works, it’s time to practice using it with some exercises.

Let’s start with some fill-in-the bank sentences:

1. Hast du die Hausaufgaben _________? (machen)
2. Sie hatte gerade die Wohnung __________, als es anfing zu regnen. (verlassen)
3. Die Zeitung wird von uns __________. (lesen)
4. Er hat das __________ Glas __________. (zerbrechen, wegwerfen)
5. Ich habe Jura __________. (studieren)
6. Wir haben oft an dich ______. (denken)

Now choose the correct auxiliary verb to complete each sentence:

1. Wir __________ einen Kuchen gebacken.
   1. sind
   2. haben
2. Du __________ den Film schon gesehen.
   1. hast
   2. bist
3. Sie __________ heute schon viele Kilometer gelaufen.
   1. sind
   2. haben
4. Ich __________ nach Hause gefahren.
   1. bin
   2. habe
5. Ihr __________ gestern angekommen.
   1. seid
   2. habt

Let’s check the answers!

Part 1: Fill in the correct past participle

1. Hast du die Hausaufgaben gemacht?
2. Sie hatte gerade die Wohnung verlassen, als es anfing zu regnen.
3. Die Zeitung wird von uns gelesen.
4. Er hat das zerbrochene Glas weggeworfen.
5. Ich habe Jura studiert.
6. Wir haben oft an dich gedacht.

Part 2: Choose the correct auxiliary verb

1. Wir haben einen Kuchen gebacken.
2. Du hast den Film schon gesehen.
3. Sie sind heute schon viele Kilometer gelaufen.
4. Ich bin nach Hause gefahren.
5. Ihr seid gestern angekommen.

As you can see, sometimes it’s just a matter of memorization, especially when it comes to irregular verbs. 

A great way to expand your vocabulary efficiently is by using flashcards. You can create your own or use websites and apps like Quizlet to help you remember verbs and their past participle forms.

If you prefer a more structured approach, we recommend Lingoda’s live classes and courses, starting from German A1. With native-level teachers and personalized feedback, you’ll get plenty of opportunities to practice what you’ve learned.

What is the past participle in German?

In German, the past participle (Partizip II) is a verb form that describes actions that have already been completed. It’s an essential part of compound tenses, such as the Perfekt, Plusquamperfekt and Future II. It also appears in passive constructions and can function as an adjective.

When do you use “haben” vs. “sein” in German past tenses?

In German past tenses, sein is used with most intransitive verbs that express motion or a change of state. Haben applies to all other verbs, primarily transitive ones.

The German past participle: Practice and progress

Learning the past participle in German is a key step toward expressing yourself more naturally and confidently. It plays an important role in compound tenses, which are used to talk about completed actions in everyday conversations, stories and written text.

Since many strong and mixed verbs don’t follow regular patterns, it’s helpful to memorize common forms and practice them regularly to make steady progress.

If you’d like to learn German or want to take your language skills further, Lingoda can help. With flexible class schedules and small group lessons, you can enjoy a personalized learning experience at your own pace.

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How to master the German accent: A complete guide to sounding like a native

So, you want to master the German accent. Maybe you’re learning the language for a new job, or maybe you’re just tired of sounding like every English speaker in East Berlin. Whatever your reason, nailing the German accent can make a big difference — not just in how you’re understood, but in how you’re perceived. It’s not about doing a convincing impression of a native speaker; it’s about connecting more naturally with the language and the people who speak it.

In this guide, we’ll discuss what defines the German accent, how it varies across regions, and what makes it sound, well, German. You’ll get practical tips, pronunciation tricks and answers to questions you didn’t even know you had.

• What is a German accent?
• Key features of authentic German pronunciation
• Why developing a German accent can help you
• How to practice and improve your German accent
• FAQs

What is a German accent?

An accent isn’t the same as a dialect. 

If you speak German with a French accent, for example, you’re still speaking standard German, just with a French twist to the sounds. An accent is all about how you pronounce words: the rhythm, the intonation, the sounds.

A dialect, on the other hand, encompasses a greater range of linguistic particularities. It may be characterized by distinctive grammar, vocabulary and even sentence structure. Think of it as speaking a slightly different version of the language — not simply one with a twist, but one with its own unique ingredients.

‘Hochdeutsch’ (Standard High German)

Just like English sounds different in London, Liverpool and Edinburgh, German accents vary across the German-speaking world. Even though Hochdeutsch (Standard High German) is the version most learners study — especially in Lingoda courses — what you hear on the streets can be wildly different. 

Hochdeutsch is the clean, neutral German you’ll find in textbooks, news broadcasts and language apps. As such, it serves as the baseline for most learners. Think of it as the “anchor” or reference point from which all the various German accents diverge.

Influence of Germanic sounds on pronunciation

The German accent has deep roots in Germanic linguistics, and you can hear it. 

Consonants are sharper and more defined. Vowels are shorter. Compare the English “w” to the German w (which sounds like an English “v”); this isn’t just a subtle shift — it’s a fundamental difference in how the mouth forms sounds. 

German doesn’t mumble. It means what it says — and it says it clearly.

The role of mouth and throat in German pronunciation

German is a full-body experience — for your mouth, your tongue and especially your throat. The infamous rolled or guttural r, for instance, is more than a sound — it’s a mini workout. Tongue placement shifts further back than in English. Sounds are more controlled and forceful.

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Key features of authentic German pronunciation

There’s more to sounding German than rolling your r’s. Authentic pronunciation lies in the details. Here are four features that shape the sound of spoken German and help separate learners from native speakers:

Short and long vowel rules in German

In German, vowel length isn’t a stylistic choice — it changes the meaning. Take bieten (to offer) and bitten (to ask): that tiny difference in vowel duration completely alters the word. Long vowels are held just a beat longer, and mastering this timing can instantly make you sound more fluent.

Umlaut sounds (Ä, Ö, Ü)

Umlauts may look intimidating, but they’re not just fancy accents — they’re entirely separate sounds. And these sounds can give different meanings to words. Schön (beautiful) isn’t the same as schon (already). To get these letters right, shift your mouth slightly forward and keep your lips rounded. If you can whistle or say “ew,” you can handle an umlaut.

The sharpness of consonants

German is all about crisp, precise consonants. Final t’s, k’s, and p’s pop more than in English. This clarity gives the language its signature precision. No dropped endings, no lazy blends.

Pitch and intonation differences

English tends to rise and fall in pitch, especially at the end of questions. German, on the other hand, keeps things steady. Questions rise only slightly, and statements often end firmly. This gives German a grounded, almost metronomic rhythm that can sound flat to English speakers — but it’s all part of its structure.

Why developing a German accent can help you

You don’t need a perfect accent to be understood, but sharpening your accent can take your German from functional to impressive. Here’s why it’s worth the effort:

Cultural fluency and connection

A good accent signals respect. Native speakers often open up more when they hear someone trying to speak like them, not just to them. It can bridge gaps, spark conversations and show that you’re actively engaging with the culture rather than just passing through.

Improved listening and speaking skills

Once you train your ear to pick up on German sounds, especially subtle ones, your listening skills will level up fast. You’ll start to recognize word boundaries, vowel changes and speech patterns that once flew past you. Speaking becomes smoother, and understanding native-speed German won’t feel like chasing a train.

Better pronunciation = better confidence

Self-consciousness is difficult to get over, but it can really hold you back. Just remember that everybody sounds awkward at first, and it takes exposure to develop the kind of clear, confident pronunciation that changes how people hear you (and how you hear yourself). Whether you’re in a job interview, giving directions or ordering Kaffee und Kuchen, sounding natural boosts credibility and comfort.

How to practice and improve your German accent

Getting the German accent right is more about training than it is about raw talent. And the good news? You can train anywhere, and whenever you’d like. Here are our top tips to develop a better German accent.

Repeat after native speakers

Mimicry works. Watch German videos, listen to podcasts or tune into the news — then hit pause and repeat. Focus on the intonation, not just the words. Try to copy the rhythm, pitch and pauses like you’re impersonating rather than merely translating. Your ear will sharpen, and your mouth will follow.

Record yourself and compare

This feels awkward at first, but it’s gold. Record yourself saying the same phrase as a native speaker, then play both versions back-to-back. It’s like holding up a mirror to your accent. You’ll spot what sounds off and what’s already improving. Small tweaks add up fast.

Learn with native-level speakers on Lingoda

Of course, there’s no substitute for real-time feedback. Lingoda’s small-group classes are taught by native-level teachers who don’t just correct mistakes but help you sound the part. You’ll get instant pointers on pronunciation tips, plus the chance to practice with others who are just as motivated to get it right.

What’s the most common German accent?

Hochdeutsch (Standard High German) is the most widely spoken and understood variation of German, especially in education and media.

Why do Germans pronounce English words differently?

German doesn’t have sounds like the English “th” or the soft “w,” so speakers often substitute with the closest German equivalents — like “s” or “z” for “th,” and “v” for “w.” It’s not a mistake; it’s muscle memory.

Don’t just learn German — sound German 

Mastering a German accent is all about clarity, confidence and connection above perfection. Whether you’re shaping sharp consonants, tackling tricky umlauts or just trying not to sound like a tourist ordering Wiener schnitzel, every small improvement brings you closer to sounding (and feeling) more at home in the language.

If you’re ready to take your accent to the next level, learning German with real humans helps. Lingoda’s small-group classes and flexible scheduling make it easy to fit in regular practice with native-level teachers.

Now it’s time to tune your ear, train your tongue and start sounding like the German speaker you’re already becoming!

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Mastering German punctuation (‘Deutsche Zeichensetzung’)

But punctuation plays a crucial role in forming sentences in German, adding rhythm, structure and syntactic clarity. A misplaced comma or a forgotten period can change how your message is understood. And while German does share some common ground with English in terms of punctuation rules, there are enough differences to trip up even confident learners.

In this guide, we’ll review the essential punctuation marks used in German. We’ll then discuss how they differ from English and explain how punctuation plays a role when speaking or dictating sentences in German.

• Common German punctuation marks and their usage
• Key differences between English and German punctuation
• Punctuation in German speech and dictation
• Tips for German punctuation
• FAQs

Common German punctuation marks and their usage

Der Punkt (.) – the period

Der Punkt (the period) is a versatile punctuation mark in German and can be used in the following manners and placements:

• to end sentences
• in abbreviations (e.g., z. B. for zum Beispiel)
• in written dates (e.g., 12.05.2025)
• after ordinal numbers (e.g., 3. Platz).

Das Komma (,) – the comma 

Das Komma (the comma) is used in lists, after introductory phrases, and to separate main and subordinate clauses. Unlike in English, many comma placements in German are mandatory and not simply for additional syntactic clarity.

Das Semikolon (;) – the semicolon

Das Semikolon (the semicolon) is used to link closely related independent clauses without a conjunction. It also appears in long lists where commas alone would be confusing.

Der Doppelpunkt (:) – the colon

Der Doppelpunkt (the colon) introduces explanations, examples, lists or direct speech.

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Das Fragezeichen (?) – the question mark

Das Fragezeichen (the question mark) goes at the end of direct questions.

Das Ausrufezeichen (!) – the exclamation mark

Das Ausrufezeichen (the exclamation mark) is used for emphasis, whether you’re issuing a command or warning, expressing a strong emotion or even extending an enthusiastic greeting.

Die Anführungszeichen („ “) – quotation marks

Die Anführungszeichen (the quotation marks) are used to indicate direct speech or quotations. The German quotation mark style is „first below, then above“ rather than the “up and up” style used in English.

Der Apostroph (‘) – the apostrophe

Der Apostroph (the apostrophe) is used in contractions and to show possession — but be careful. Many Germans overuse it, a habit known as the Deppenapostroph (“fool’s apostrophe”). Don’t be that person.

Die Auslassungspunkte (…) – the ellipsis points

Die Auslassungspunkte (the ellipsis points) indicate something left unsaid, a pause or an incomplete thought. Use it with restraint — it’s more subtle than dramatic.

Der Bindestrich (-) and der Gedankenstrich (–) – hyphen and dash

Der Bindestrich (the hyphen) connects compound words (e.g., Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch). Der Gedankenstrich (the dash) signals an interruption or change in tone — like this.

Die Klammern ( () ) – parentheses 

Die Klammern (the parentheses) are used to add extra information or clarifications that don’t quite fit into the main sentence.

Key differences between German and English punctuation

Commas: More rules, less freedom

If English commas are about style, German commas are about law. They’re required in many situations where English allows flexibility — most notably before and after subordinate clauses. So, while in English you could write, “I know that he’s coming,” in German you must write it as: Ich weiß, dass er kommt.

Quotation marks: Different style, same purpose

English uses “straight up” quotation marks. German prefers the „low-high“ format, with the opening mark at the bottom („) and the closing one at the top (“). It may look unfamiliar at first, but it’s standard in books, newspapers and formal writing. For example: „Ich komme gleich“, sagte sie.

Apostrophes: Use with care

German uses apostrophes far less commonly than English. They’re mainly for omissions (wie geht’s?) and rarely for possession. Overusing them is frowned upon — hence the term Deppenapostroph. So, when in doubt, leave it out.

Time and date formats: Punctuated precision

Germans like their schedules precise, and their punctuation reflects that. Time is usually written in the 24-hour format with a colon; for example, you’d write 14:30 instead of 2:30 p.m.. Dates go from small to big: Tag.Monat.Jahr — for example, 12.05.2025. Note the full stops, which differ from the slashes commonly used in English.

Tips for mastering German punctuation

To wrap it up, here are our top five tips for mastering German punctuation efficiently:

1. Learn the comma rules—and stick to them.

German commas aren’t optional. Get comfortable identifying subordinate clauses and learn when commas are required. A good rule of thumb: if there’s a dass, weil or wenn in the sentence, a comma probably belongs nearby.

2. Don’t overuse the apostrophe.

It’s tempting to write Peter’s Auto, but resist. In German, possession usually doesn’t need an apostrophe: Peters Auto is correct. Save the apostrophe for actual omissions (e.g. wie geht’s?).

3. Watch your quotation marks.

Get used to the German format: „like this“. Typing them correctly can be tricky, especially on non-German keyboards, so make use of shortcuts or language settings if needed.

4. Practice punctuation aloud.

Try reading texts and inserting spoken punctuation: Komma, Punkt, Fragezeichen. This sharpens your awareness and also preps you to dictate German aloud via dictation or speech recognition tools.

5. Pay attention to date and time formats.

A quick mental check before writing a date or time can prevent confusion. Remember: 12.05.2025 is not December — it’s May.

Common pitfalls to avoid

• Skipping commas in complex sentences
• Adding apostrophes where they don’t belong
• Using English-style punctuation in German texts
• Mixing up date formats (especially in international contexts)

Helpful exercises and resources

• Read German news articles and highlight punctuation usage.
• Rewrite English sentences in German with the correct punctuation.
  
• Try online punctuation quizzes or grammar checkers.
• Practice with dictation tools to improve spoken punctuation awareness.

Looking for structured guidance, real-time feedback and the chance to apply what you learn in conversations? Lingoda is a great place to start. With native-speaking teachers and classes that challenge you to write as well as speak, you can master die Zeichensetzung in context — not just in theory.

Are semicolons commonly used in German?

No, semicolons are rare in German. When they are used, it’s primarily to connect related main clauses or separate complex list items.

What’s the correct punctuation for abbreviations in German?

Use a period after each abbreviated part, e.g., z. B. (zum Beispiel), u. a. (unter anderem). Don’t skip the spaces.

Why learning German punctuation matters 

German punctuation is essential for writing clearly, sounding natural and avoiding misunderstandings. From strict comma rules to date formats and quotation marks, getting it right makes a real difference. It’s especially important for emails, applications and speaking with dictation tools.If you want structured practice, consider Lingoda’s German language classes as a smart way to build confidence and accuracy, with real-time feedback from native speakers. Viel Erfolg! (Good luck!) May your commas land where they’re needed, your apostrophes stay in line and your Punkt always hit the mark.

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How to say good night in Spanish: All you need to know

Just like in English and other languages, Spanish has different ways to say good night depending on the context. For example, buenas noches (good evening/good night) is perfect for practically any situation (this is your trusty go-to!). Then dulces sueños (sweet dreams) is more personal and best used with family and friends..

In the short list of Spanish phrases for beginners, knowing how to say good night in Spanish properly according to the audience and setting is key. We promise we won’t have you yawning!

• What does buenas noches really mean?
• How to say good night in Spanish: 24 authentic phrases
• ‘Good night’ vs. ‘good evening’ in Spanish
• Cultural nuances: Timing and tone
• FAQs

What does buenas noches really mean?

Okay, so, there’s a good chance you’ve already heard (or even used) buenas noches more than a few times before. But what does it really mean? And how do we use it? 

Buenas noches literally translates to ‘good nights’ in English, and it’s the most common and neutral way to say good night in Spanish. It’s suitable in all kinds of scenarios and with all types of audiences, no matter how formal or casual. Chatting with your in-laws? Perfect. Finishing a video call with a colleague? No problem. Saying good night to your Spanish-speaking partner? You got it. 

Now, let’s take a look at a few quick examples using buenas noches to clear it all up:

• Buenas noches, ¿en qué le puedo ayudar? (Good evening, what can I help you with?)
• Gracias por la ayuda y buenas noches. Nos vemos mañana (Thanks for the help and good night. See you tomorrow)
• Buenas noches, que duermas bien (Good night and sleep well)

You’ve probably also noticed that many phrases we use to say hi or goodbye in Spanish, like buenas noches and buenos días (good morning), use the plural form. Nevertheless, in some parts of Latin America, we might hear singular versions like buen día and buena tarde (good afternoon). You’re safe using these as well. 

Just keep in mind: it’s important to match the form to the correct gender and number to avoid mix-ups like buena noches or buenas días, which are both incorrect. Remember that tarde and noche are feminine nouns and día is masculine, and that if you add an ‘s’ to any of these, they become plural.

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How to say good night in Spanish: 24 authentic phrases

Yes, buenas noches can be used pretty much in all situations and with any audience. If we really want to level up our conversation skills and make our interactions feel personal, it’s a good idea to learn other ways to say good night.

Let’s dive into some of the most common ways to say good night in Spanish according to context and intention:

Classic and common

These phrases are particularly common amongst friends and family:

• Buenas noches – Good evening / Good night
• Hasta mañana – See you tomorrow
• Descansa – Rest up
• Que descanses – Rest well
• Duerme bien – Sleep well
• Que duermas bien – May you sleep well
• Nos vemos mañana – See you tomorrow

Note: Out of these, only buenas noches and hasta mañana should be used in formal environments. The rest are either too casual or too personal for the office.

Romantic and cute

Many of us are learning the language because we’d like to impress our Spanish-speaking partner! Are you? Here are some romantic ways to wish a good night in Spanish:

• Dulces sueños – Sweet dreams
• Que sueñes con los angelitos – Dream of little angels
• Buenas noches, mi amor – Good night, my love
• Sueña conmigo – Dream of me
• Soñaré contigo – I’ll dream of you
• Que tengas dulces sueños – Have sweet dreams
• Linda noche / Bonita noche – Lovely night (mainly LatAm)
• Feliz noche –  Happy night

Casual and colloquial

The following expressions will help you sound more natural. Be aware that they’re quite casual and should be used only with close acquaintances:

• Me voy a dormir – I’m going to sleep
• Me voy a la cama – I’m off to bed
• Es hora de dormir – It’s time to sleep
• Vete a dormir – Go to sleep (informal/familiar)
• Buenas – Shorthand for buenas noches in speech
• Ciao – Casual goodbye borrowed from Italian

Note: Vete a dormir is a command often used by parents with their children. If you’d like to use it with other adults, be sure your tone comes across as friendly or playful to avoid sounding harsh.

Formal and polite

Would you like to politely say good night to a Spanish-speaking colleague without relying on the classic (and sometimes tired) buenas noches? These phrases are perfect for formal situations:

• Que tenga una buena noche – May you have a good night
• Que pase una buena noche – May you go through a good night
• Buenas noches y hasta pronto – Good night and see/talk to you soon

Remember that Spanish distinguishes between two forms of ‘you’: usted and tú. Tú is informal and can be used with young people, peers, friends, most family members and close colleagues. On the other hand, usted is commonly used to address older strangers, professors and teachers, workplace superiors and, oftentimes, grandparents. The verb conjugation in formal vs. informal Spanish is also different. Be sure to use the right verb form when going for usted.

‘Good night’ vs. ‘good evening’ in Spanish

As we mentioned earlier, buenas noches is one of the most neutral and versatile ways to say good night in Spanish. And this isn’t just because it can be used in both formal and casual scenarios, but also because it works both as a greeting and a farewell (yay!). This, of course, is different from American English, where we use ‘good evening’ to say hi and ‘good night’ to say goodbye.

And we’ve got some more good news: we can typically use buenas noches anytime after nightfall, regardless of whether we’re actually heading to bed already or just greeting someone in the evening. It is, indeed, an all time hero!

Now, if we wanna make it clear that we’re saying good night because we’re going to sleep, then we can go with the following phrases:

• Formal: Buenas noches y hasta mañana – Good night and until tomorrow
• Informal: Me voy a dormir, buenas noches – I’m going to sleep, good night

But what if we mean to use buenas noches as a greeting? Then we’ve go these options:

• Hola, buenas noches – Hello, good evening
• Buenas noches, ¿cómo estás/está? – Good evening, how are you? (estás is informal language, está is formal)

The key to differentiating the greeting from the farewell is to pay attention to the context. If there’s an hola or another conversation opener, then it’s safe to say it’s a greeting. On the other hand, if it comes after having already engaged in conversation or if it’s paired with something like hasta luego (until next time) or nos vemos (see you later), then we have a farewell.

Cultural nuances: Timing and tone

Alright, we’ve now explored different ways to say good night in various contexts. But there’s still an elephant in the room: when exactly should we say good night in Spanish-speaking countries?

Well, in Spain, for example, buenas noches and other nighttime farewells are generally used after 8:00 PM. Before that, it’s better to stick to buenas tardes (good afternoon). However, in Latin America, people tend to switch to buenas noches at dusk, just before it gets dark.

When it comes to tone, we shouldn’t forget to use usted when talking to older strangers and our superiors. We should avoid overly personal language like dulces sueños or me voy a dormir unless we’re with family or friends.

What about texting? All of the expressions we’ve shared also work well in text messaging!

What is the difference between ‘buenas noches’ and ‘buenas tardes’?

Buenas noches (good night) is used only at night, while buenas tardes (good afternoon) is appropriate from 12:00 PM until nightfall.

Is ‘buenas noches’ a greeting or a goodbye?

In Spanish, buenas noches (good night) is both a greeting and a farewell, so it’s suitable for starting or ending a conversation. To make our intention clearer, we can pair it with expressions like ¿cómo estás? (how are you?) or hasta mañana (until tomorrow), depending on whether we’re saying hi or goodbye.

Practicing our good nights

Now that you know how to say good night in Spanish in so many different ways, it’s time to put it all into practice! Whether you’re chatting with your Spanish-speaking best friend, partner or colleague, personalizing your conversations will help you sound more natural and approachable. A good tip is to pick a couple of your favorite phrases and start from there.

And if you’re ready to take your skills to the next level, join us at Lingoda! Our native-level teachers and real-life conversation focus will get you to speak Spanish from day one… All from the comfort of your own home and at your own pace. Day and night!

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How to use the German pronoun ‘man’ (and not confuse it with ‘Mann’)

If you’ve come across the word “man” in German language lessons and found yourself puzzled — especially when no actual man seems to be involved — you’re not alone. Man is an indefinite pronoun in German, used when the subject is unspecified or general. 

It’s the German equivalent of the indefinite pronouns commonly used in English expressions like “one never knows,” “you can’t win them all,” or “they say it’s going to rain.” Unlike English, which uses various different pronouns for these impersonal constructions, German consistently uses man when referring to people in general.

In this article, we’ll break down exactly what man means, how it differs from the noun Mann and how to use it correctly.

• Man vs. Mann: Spot the difference
• When to use man in German sentences
• How to conjugate verbs after man
• Other ways to say man in German
• FAQs

‘Man’ vs. ‘Mann’: Spot the difference

If you’re learning German at any level, you may have already noticed how similar man and Mann look. Only one letter sets them apart, and they’re even pronounced the same. 

But these two words belong to entirely different categories. Mistaking one for the other can lead to misunderstandings or slightly odd-sounding sentences. The good news is that German capitalization rules make them easy to tell apart — as a definite noun, Mann is always capitalized, whereas the indefinite man is not. 

Let’s look at a few other differences between the two words:

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When to use ‘man’ in German sentences

The German pronoun man is used when the subject of a sentence is indefinite — in other words, when you’re not referring to any specific person. In English, this idea is usually expressed with words like “one,” “people” or the generic form of “you.” 

Man is often used to give advice, share observations, express general truths or comment on typical behaviours. And because it doesn’t specify who is acting, it keeps the tone neutral and widely applicable.

Keep in mind that man is always conjugated in the singular third person and only refers to people — never to objects or animals. Far from a niche construction, it’s a common way to avoid the passive voice in everyday language. Instead of starting an observation with, for example, “Es wird gesagt…” (It is said…), A German might instead opt for a more natural-sounding variant: “Man sagt…” (People say…).

Real-life situations for using ‘man’

Let’s look at the kinds of phrases in which you’ll hear man used in daily conversation:

1. Giving general advice or rules.

• Man darf hier nicht rauchen. (You’re not allowed to smoke here.)

2. Describing cultural habits, customs or social norms.

• In Deutschland sagt man „Guten Appetit”. (In Germany, people say “Guten Appetit.”)

3. Stating general truths or observations.

• Man kann nicht alles haben. (You can’t have everything.)

4. Expressing habits or routines.

• Man steht früh auf, wenn man zur Schule geht. (You get up early when you go to school.)

How to conjugate verbs after ‘man’

The use of man requires a very basic German verb conjugation. As a third-person pronoun, man goes with the third-person singular form — the same one used with er, sie and or es. There’s never gender or number variation to worry about, because it’s grammatically fixed.

Other ways to say ‘man’ in German

Depending on the tone, audience or context, German offers several alternatives that can replace man — each with a slightly different nuance.

Use jemand when you’re implying someone specific, but not identified.

• Jemand hat an der Tür geklopft. (Someone knocked on the door.)
  

Use die Leute when you’re referring to people as a group. This can carry an opinionated tone, depending on the context.

Die Leute sagen viel. (People say a lot.)

Use wir to make a general statement feel more inclusive or collective.

• Wir müssen mehr aufpassen. (We need to be more careful.)
  

Use du in casual conversation to express common experiences or shared knowledge.

• Du weißt ja nie, was passiert. (You never know what might happen.)
  

Use sie (they) when referring to public opinion or unnamed sources.

• Sie sagen, es wird teuer. (They say it will be expensive.)

While all these forms can replace man in certain sentences, they each shift the tone slightly. Just as in English, where saying “One/You/We shouldn’t come too late” feels similar but subtly different, context matters.

• Man sollte nicht zu spät kommen. (General and neutral advice)
• Du solltest nicht zu spät kommen. (Reminder or personal advice)
• Wir sollten nicht zu spät kommen. (Collective statement that includes the speaker)

What does ‘man’ mean in German?

The German word man means “one,” “someone” or “people” in general — it’s an indefinite pronoun for unspecific subjects.

Is ‘man’ formal or informal in German?

It’s neutral. You’ll hear it in both formal and informal contexts.

Can ‘man’ be used for women?

Yes. Man refers to people in general, regardless of gender.

The German pronoun ‘man’ in a nutshell

So, we’ve learned that man does not refer to a strictly male person in German. It’s not even a noun as such, but rather a versatile German pronoun that roughly translates to “someone,” “you” or “people in general.” It’s always singular, always third person, and perfect for making broad, neutral statements — whether you’re giving advice, sharing cultural habits or just musing about life.

At Lingoda, you’ll get plenty of real-world practice with these nuances. Our native-level teachers won’t just teach you grammar — they’ll show you how the language actually works in everyday situations. So keep at it, keep asking questions, and Viel Erfolg! (Good luck!).

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Is Fluency Dead? The Rise of “Survival German” Among Expats in Germany

Are you familiar with the term “survival German”? If you’re picturing a hardcore survivalist like Bear Grylls braving the wilderness with only a cheat sheet of German vocabulary, you’re actually not so far off. “Survival German” refers to a phenomenon among expats in bigger German cities, in which many choose not to master the language but instead try to get by with basic skills — even after living in Germany for years. 

Why is this happening? It’s not because learning a new language has become harder, nor is it because German specifically has lost its value. It’s simply easier to get by in English these days.

An impressive 56% of Germans speak English fluently, though that number is closer to 90% in bigger cities like Berlin. With English cropping up everywhere from international offices to local supermarkets, it’s certainly possible to navigate daily life in Germany without speaking German fluently. So, it’s no surprise that part of the growing expat workforce in Germany has adopted a minimalist language strategy. 

• Fluency as the traditional ideal (and why it’s fading)
• Real challenges: Why German fluency is elusive
• Integration vs. convenience: The cultural trade-off

Fluency as the traditional ideal (and why it’s fading)

Although the “survival German” trend has gained momentum in recent years, it wasn’t always this way. Traditionally, expats who moved permanently to a country for professional or personal reasons aspired to fluency in the local language. While it’s not fair to say that this has changed for the majority of expats and immigrants, certain realities make it more difficult for German learners to reach the B1 or B2 proficiency most language schools and integration courses recommend.

For one, German is not known as an easy language. In a recent study, 67% of expat respondents rated German as difficult to learn, which can be frustrating when you’re also juggling a new job and adjusting to a new culture. Linguistic experts have compared the long slog of mastering German to running a marathon, as it can take one to two years of intensive study (i.e., two to three hours everyday) to reach fluency.  

Very few working professionals can afford that time. While German is still the most widely spoken language in Europe, with more than 15 million people learning it globally, complete fluency continues to elude many expats. 

Real challenges: Why German fluency is elusive

German’s reputation as a difficult language is well-earned. German grammar is notoriously complex, confronting learners with four cases, three genders and almost as many exceptions as there are rules. For native English speakers — or anyone coming from a more “straightforward” language — learning German can feel like a steep climb. 

Perhaps no one ever put it better than the famed American writer Mark Twain, who once claimed that “a gifted person ought to learn English (barring spelling and pronouncing) in 30 hours, French in 30 days and German in thirty years.” 

Everyday life as an adult doesn’t leave much room for several hours of language study each day. And to make matters worse, many native speakers tend to switch to English upon hearing an accent. This combination of factors can make the language journey a long and daunting one.

Integration vs. convenience: The cultural trade-off

While many situations can be handled with “survival German,” certain hurdles — like rental contracts and tax forms — still require a certain level of language proficiency. But it doesn’t stop there. Sticking to very basic German can have consequences for your social life, too, as it can make it harder to find friends and feel included. 

In bigger cities, where living in an “English bubble” is possible, many expats mostly connect with fellow internationals. While this can still be fulfilling, learning the language remains key if you intend to get the full picture of a culture. Without speaking German, some doors to the country you’re living in will inevitably stay closed. 

The workplace shift: Is German still required on the job?

The shift toward “survival German” becomes easier to understand when you consider recent changes in the German professional environment. Depending on the field, it’s now possible to work for many German companies without speaking German at all. Especially in sectors like tech, engineering and research, speaking German is not necessarily a requirement — though strong German skills are a precondition for jobs in HR or law. 

Rethinking language goals in Germany

There are several reasons why a shift away from language proficiency is becoming more common among many expats. Pragmatically, the demands of everyday life have increased dramatically for everyone — not just expats — due to higher expectations at work and an overall faster pace of life. . Taking time to learn a language like German, which is known for its complexity and inaccessibility, is often not realistic. 

Furthermore, German culture has become more international and English is widely spoken, especially in big cities. It has even become possible to work in Germany without speaking German at all. Nevertheless, something is lost when fluency is no longer the goal. To get full access to a new country, speaking the language is still a necessary requirement and comes with its own rewards. Ultimately, “Is fluency still the goal?” might not have a one-size-fits-all answer.

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Mastering German: The #1 Factor for Expats’ Career & Salary Growth in Germany (2025 Data)

Germany is one of the most attractive destinations in the EU for skilled workers, thanks to its robust economy, high quality of life, and wealth of career opportunities. But if you want full access to the country’s job market, speaking German is essential. With just 2.7% of job listings explicitly stating that German is not required, language proficiency is the key factor that determines an expat’s prospects. Fluency not only expands your job options; it also opens the door to higher-paying roles across various industries. 

This article explores the state of the German job market in 2025, drawing on the latest data to examine language-related trends, industry insights, salary impact, and employer expectations, providing a clear and comprehensive guide for expats navigating the German job market. 

• German language demand in job postings – 97% of jobs require German
• Salary impact – German proficiency increases earnings by 20%
• Employer expectations – why 59% of companies prioritize German skills
• Key takeaways and actionable advice for expats

German language demand in job postings – 97% of jobs require German

While internationalization is beginning to reshape the German job market, the reality remains: most jobs in Germany require some German proficiency. Certain industries and regions do offer opportunities to English-speaking migrants, but the number of these roles is fairly limited. German remains the default language for the vast majority of jobs, despite not being overtly stated in job postings y. In fact, it’s typically assumed, especially for client-facing or managerial positions.

Categories of job postings based on language requirements:

A detailed analysis of job listings in Germany reveals three distinct categories when it comes to language expectations:

1.  Roles that explicitly state “German required”, leaving no ambiguity about the need for proficiency. 
2. 2.7% of listings, according to a 2024 Hiring Lab survey, clearly indicate “German is not required”. This underscores how rare it is to find opportunities where English alone is enough. 
3. Job postings that do not mention language at all. However, in the German job market, silence on language typically implies that German is expected by default unless stated otherwise. Language is implicit in employability, even when it’s not spelled out.

Insights from job posting analyses:

With only 2.7% of jobs explicitly open to non-German speakers, Germany stands out in Europe for its language expectations. In the Netherlands, 7.8% of jobs are open to non-Dutch speakers, while in Spain, 5.8% of openings don’t require Spanish.  France and Italy also come above Germany, with more jobs available for people who don’t speak the local language. 

Language requirements also correlate with salary potential. High-paying roles – as accounting or pharmaceuticals – have the lowest levels of language flexibility, according to the Hiring Lab survey. In contrast, traditionally low-wage sectors, like cleaning services and hospitality,  welcome non-German-speaking applicants more openly. 

However, there are reasons for optimism for non-German speakers. The Opportunity Card (Chancenkarte), launched in 2024, allows qualified migrants to work with either A1 German or B2 English skills. Five years earlier, the Federal Employment Agency recognized the need to recruit migrant workers in its annual report. A key pillar of this was improved language support for non-German speakers. 

Regional insights – where can expats work without German?

Non-German-speaking expats may have better luck finding roles in major cities, where jobs often require proficiency in English. Hamburg leads the way, with 38% of roles requiring English, followed by Berlin with 30%, according to an article by Presse Portal. In the state of Hesse, home to Frankfurt am Main, 30% of jobs also require English. This may be due to the higher number of international companies and start-ups in these areas. However, simply because these roles require English does not mean that German isn’t required. 

More rural regions such as Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania offer far fewer opportunities, with only 11–12% of roles requiring English. 

Implications for job seekers:

First, job seekers should assume that German proficiency is required unless a job posting states otherwise. Secondly, non-German speakers seeking work will need to target jobs in certain areas of Germany and in specific industries. Multinational corporations, tech start-ups, and research institutions are known to be open to English-speaking professionals, and English is sometimes the primary working language. People who don’t speak German may need to focus on low-skilled, service-sector jobs that often explicitly state that German is not required. 

Industries with the most and least language flexibility

In certain sectors, German is non-negotiable:

• Finance, law, and public administration all require a knowledge of German laws and regulations, making fluency in German essential. 
• In healthcare, doctors, nurses, and pharmacists must pass German language exams to gain certification. 
• Skilled trades and manufacturing roles require at least intermediate German, often due to safety regulations. 

• By contrast, expats may have more luck finding an English-only job in tech or R&D: 54% of IT postings require English, and some companies use English as the primary language in day-to-day operations. 
• Over 50% of roles in research and development also specified that English skills were necessary, making this another possible field for expats. 

The most accessible sector for non-German speakers remains low-wage industries like cleaning and hospitality. A study of listings on Indeed revealed that 9 out of 10 jobs that don’t specify German as a requirement fell into these categories. Statistics from DE Statis back this up, showing that 52% of workers in low-skilled occupations had an immigration background in 2022. However, it’s important to note that without German, career progression is likely to be limited. 

Salary impact – German proficiency increases earnings by 20%

How much more do German-speaking expats earn?

Speaking German doesn’t just broaden your job prospects, it can also boost your paycheck. A paper by the International Monetary Fund shows that new immigrants earn 20% less than German-born workers with the same qualifications. The difference is smaller for those with German language skills, and tends to shrink the longer migrants stay in the workforce.   

A study conducted by the Cologne Institute for Economic Research supports this. Migrants who speak fluent German earn nearly the same as native speakers in comparable roles. As language proficiency increases, so too do potential earnings. Conversely, if migrants don’t learn the language, their earning potential may be capped.  

Bilingual professionals get faster promotions and raises

The advantage of speaking a foreign language goes both ways. A study published by Science Direct shows that native German speakers who have a good knowledge of English can earn up to 13% more than non-English speakers. This means that expats with both German and English skills are more likely to have the opportunity to move into leadership roles. Those who don’t learn German will be at a distinct disadvantage when it comes to promotion. DE Statis figures from 2022 showed that just 18% of managers had an immigration background. 

Employer expectations – why 59% of companies prioritize German skills

Language as the #1 hiring hurdle

For 59% of companies seeking to hire international talent, the lack of German among candidates is the biggest challenge, according to a study by all ten Chambers of Industry and Commerce in Hesse. 

The level of proficiency required of foreign hires is relatively high. 32% of companies require at least a B1 level in German (intermediate), and 26% insist on B2 (upper-intermediate). Reaching B2 means you are able to engage in technical discussions in their field and work entirely in German. Of the companies that do hire foreign workers, 37% offer German language training, further highlighting the demand for language proficiency. 

Key takeaways and actionable advice for expats

Roughly 97% of jobs in Germany require at least some level of German, meaning non-German speakers have to compete for just a small share of the market. While many job postings don’t explicitly mention language requirements, German is typically assumed unless stated otherwise. The few positions that are open to English speakers are mainly in tech, research, and international firms, most of which are based in major cities like Berlin, Frankfurt, and Hamburg. 

However, relying solely on English can limit both job variety and career progression. Studies show how  German proficiency correlates to higher salaries, with nearly all top-paying roles requiring fluency. Expats who speak German not only gain access to more opportunities, but they also tend to earn more and move into leadership positions more quickly. In short, investing in your German skills is one of the most effective ways to unlock your full professional potential in Germany.

Resources to improve your German for career growth

• Fortunately, many resources are available to help professionals strengthen their German and expand their career prospects: online German courses offer flexible, structured learning tailored to different levels, needs, and schedules. 
• In-person courses are also available for those who can commit to a set schedule. 
• Employer-sponsored training with in-house courses or funded German lessons.
• Government-run integration programs that provide free or heavily subsidized German lessons to help expats settle in and succeed professionally.

No matter what you current level is, improving your German should become an integral part of your career development plan.

German is the key to career success

Mastering German is without question the most effective way for expats to enjoy a thriving career in Germany. Whether it’s expanding your access to job opportunities, increasing your earning potential, or opening up possibilities for promotion, language skills make a measurable difference. By investing in German proficiency, expats position themselves to unlock long-term career growth in one of Europe’s strongest economies. In 2025 and beyond, language skills remain the key to accessing the full potential of Germany’s diverse and dynamic job market.

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The English alphabet: A complete guide for beginners

The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters, each with an uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) form. It includes five vowels and 21 consonants. Every English word is made up of these 26 letters. The alphabet is based on the Latin script, like many other languages, including Spanish, German, Polish, and Malay. 

In this article, we’ll take a close look at the alphabet’s sounds and silent letters, discover some letters that don’t exist in English anymore, and take a look at how the English alphabet developed.

• How many letters are in the English alphabet?
• How to pronounce the English alphabet
• Where did the English alphabet come from? A short history
• Fun facts about the English alphabet
• FAQs

How many letters are in the English alphabet?

There are 26 letters in the English alphabet. Each has an uppercase and a lowercase form. 

Capital vs. lowercase letters

We use lowercase letters much more often than uppercase ones in English. Uppercase letters appear:

• At the start of sentences
  • The door is open. 
• For proper nouns (specific names of people, places, things)
  • People: Ben, Alice
  • Places: New York, the Nile 
  • Brands and Companies: Adidas, Lingoda
  • Days and Months: Monday, August
  • Languages and Nationalities: English, Japanese
• For the pronoun I (regardless of its position in a sentence)
  • No, I’m not coming. 
• In acronyms and initialisms
  • BBC, NASA
• For movie, book, and song titles, etc. (often following title case)
  • The Lord of the Rings, Like a Rolling Stone

Vowels and consonants: What’s the difference?

There are five vowels in English: a, e, i, o, u. All of the other 21 letters are consonants. But there are far more vowel sounds than there are letters: English has 20 vowel sounds! 

These fall into two categories: 

• Monophthongs – single, pure vowel sounds like the /ɪ/ in ‘sit’.
• Diphthongs –  two vowel sounds blended together, like the /eɪ/ in ‘train’. 

There are 24 consonant sounds, and we typically divide them into voiced and unvoiced. 

• Voiced – you’ll feel vibration in your throat when making these sounds, as with the /b/ in ‘bat’.
• Unvoiced – no throat vibration as with the /p/ in ‘pat’.

Certain consonant sounds are made of two letters combined, like the /ʃ/ at the beginning of ‘sheep’.  

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How to pronounce the English alphabet

The most common English vowel sounds

Distinguishing between vowel sounds can be challenging for English learners, particularly when it comes to long vs. short vowels. Short vowels are like the /æ/ in ‘cat’ or the /ɛ/ in ‘bed’, and longer vowel sounds are like the /eɪ/ in ‘cake’ and the /iː/ in ‘bead’. Words with long vowel sounds tend to have two vowels next to each other, like in bEAd, or a vowel + consonant + vowel pattern, like in cAkE. 

The hard and soft consonants

C and G can have hard or soft sounds depending on the letters that follow them. They often have a soft sound before E, I, or Y (though there are many exceptions). 

C

The hard C is pronounced /k/, as in ‘cat’ /kæt/. The soft C is pronounced /s/, as in ‘city’ /ˈsɪti/. 

G

The hard G is pronounced /g/, as in ‘goat’ /ɡəʊt/. The soft G is pronounced /dʒ/ as in ‘giraffe’ /dʒəˈrɑːf/. 

Tricky sounds for non-native speakers

Certain sounds are tricky for non-native speakers, usually because they don’t exist or aren’t clearly distinguished in their first language. Here are some examples: 

• TH sounds: /θ/ as in ‘think’ and /ð/ as in ‘this’ can be difficult for many learners. Some substitute /s/, /z/, or /d/ sounds instead.
• L vs. R: Some learners of an East Asian background may struggle to distinguish between /l/ and /r/ as in the words ‘light’ and ‘right’ because their native language may not separate these sounds clearly.
• P vs. B: In languages like Arabic, /p/ doesn’t exist, so it’s often replaced with /b/. (Pepsi becomes Bebsi.)
• British vs. American R: In American English, R is pronounced almost everywhere. In British English, it’s only pronounced when it comes before a vowel. This can affect understanding — for example, ‘court’ and ‘caught’ sound the same in many British accents. 

Learning English with Lingoda’s native-speaking teachers can help you become familiar with regional differences and enable you to work on pronouncing challenging sounds. 

Silent letters and unpredictable sounds

Many letters in the English alphabet can be silent, which can make it difficult for learners to guess their pronunciation. Learning the phonetic alphabet can really help! Here are a few examples of silent letters in English. 

• B: lamb, debt
• G: gnome, sign, foreign
• H: hour, honest
• K: knife, know
• L: walk, talk
• P: psychology, receipt
• W: write, who

Why are they silent? In many cases, the letters used to be pronounced, like the K in ‘knife’ and the W in ‘write’. In others, they were added later for etymological reasons — for example, the B in ‘’debt’ reflects the Latin root debitum. Words like ‘psychology’ borrow combinations from Greek that are rare in English, such as PS.

To make things more complex, some letter combinations have multiple pronunciations: 

• GH can be silent, as in ‘light’, pronounced /f/, as in ‘laugh’, or pronounced /g/, as in ‘ghost’.
• OUGH is the ultimate nightmare, with no fewer than nine different pronunciations!  

American vs. British pronunciation

American English and British English speakers pronounce the alphabet in almost the same way. Z and, to some extent, R are exceptions. 

Where did the English alphabet come from? A short history

The English alphabet has its roots in the Latin alphabet, which arrived in Britain with the Romans. However, the alphabet wasn’t used to write in English until around the 7th century. It also contained certain extra letters to reflect English sounds, including þ (thorn), ð (eth), and æ (ash). These gradually disappeared after the Norman Conquest in 1066, when French spelling conventions began to reshape English. Although these characters are no longer part of the modern alphabet, they still appear in historical texts and studies of Old English.

The lost letters of English

Texts written in Old English will contain several letters that aren’t used in modern English: 

• Thorn (Þ): This represented the voiced and unvoiced TH sound in words like thing and the.
• Eth (Ð): This letter also represented the TH sounds in Old English. 
• Wynn (ƿ): The Latin alphabet didn’t contain the letter W, so it was represented with ƿ instead. 
• Ash (Æ): Æ was used for the short A sound we have in words like cat. 

Fun facts about the English alphabet

• The most common letter in English is E. It appears in around 12% of words. 
• The least common letter is Z. It appears in just 0.07% of words. 
• Q is almost always followed by U, like in ‘queen’ and ‘quick’. Exceptions, like ‘Qatar’, are borrowed from other languages. 
• W is the only letter pronounced with more than one syllable: double u. 
• The Old English letter Þ was written as Y when the printing press was introduced. This has led to people believing ‘the’ was originally pronounced ‘ye’, as in Ye Olde Shoppe. 

How many letters are in the English alphabet?

There are 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, from A to Z.

Are there any letters that were removed from the English alphabet?

Yes, Old English once included letters like þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which are no longer used today.

From A to Z: What’s next on your English journey?

Mastering the English alphabet is just the beginning. Learning English with Lingoda, you can build confidence, improve pronunciation, and keep making progress one step at a time. Whether you’re learning tricky sounds or expanding your vocabulary, we’re here to help you reach your goals. Are you ready for the next chapter?

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A guide to auxiliary verbs in German: How to use “sein,” “haben”, and “werden”

They are essential for expressing past and future actions, as well as for using the passive voice. These versatile verbs are everywhere, and mastering them opens the door to talking about past experiences, describing ongoing actions and making future plans.

In this article, you’ll get to know the three key German auxiliary verbs: sein, haben and werden. You’ll learn how to conjugate them in different tenses while using the correct word order, and you’ll even find some helpful tips for practicing these important verbs.

• The 3 essential German auxiliary verbs
• Conjugating German auxiliary verbs
• Word order with auxiliary verbs
• Practice tips for mastering German auxiliary verbs
• FAQs

The 3 essential German auxiliary verbs

The three essential German auxiliary verbs are sein (to be), haben (to have) and werden (to become). These are among the most common German verbs, and all three happen to be irregular, with sein being the most irregular in its various conjugations.

Sein is used with verbs of motion or change. Since most of these verbs are intransitive, meaning they don’t take a direct object, sein becomes the auxiliary of choice in many cases:

• Ich bin gelaufen. (I ran.)
• Er ist gefahren. (He drove.)

Haben serves as the auxiliary for most other verbs, which are typically transitive and therefore refer to one or more objects:

• Sie hat eine Pizza gegessen. (She ate a pizza.)
• Wir haben einen Film geschaut. (We watched a movie.)

While werden does mean “to become,” its grammatical role extends much further. First, it’s used to form the future tense:

• Sie werden morgen arbeiten. (They will work tomorrow.)
• Ihr werdet übermorgen angekommen sein. (You will have arrived the day after tomorrow.)

You’ll also see werden in the passive voice, where it carries the tense while the past participle expresses the action. In this construction, the focus shifts to the receiver of the action:

•  Die Pizza wird von ihr gegessen. (The pizza is being eaten by her.)
• Der Film wird von uns geschaut. (The film is being watched by us.)

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Conjugating German auxiliary verbs

Präsens (present)

Präteritum (simple past)

Perfekt + plusquamperfekt (Perfect + past perfect)

Word order with auxiliary verbs

German has a rich grammatical structure that allows a flexible word order. Knowing how to correctly arrange the different parts of a sentence, including auxiliary verbs, is key to speaking the language effectively.

In main clauses, which can stand alone as complete sentences, the conjugated verb occurs in the second position, while the participle goes to the end:

• Ich gehe ins Kino. (I go to the movies.)
• Ich bin ins Kino gegangen. (I went to the movies.)

However, if a sentence contains a modal verb, a type of auxiliary verb used to formulate requests, orders, obligations or advice, the modal verb takes the second position. The main verb, in its infinitive form, moves to the end of the clause. For example:

• Ich muss arbeiten. (I have to work.)
• Wir können später telefonieren. (We can call later.)

If both an auxiliary and a modal verb are present, the auxiliary is conjugated, the main verb (infinitive) comes second to last, and the modal verb (infinitive) appears at the very end. For example:

• Du hättest mehr lernen sollen. (You should have studied more.)
• Wir werden rechtzeitig kommen können. (We will be able to arrive on time.)

In subordinate clauses, which depend on a main clause and cannot stand alone, the conjugated auxiliary verb appears at the very end, preceded by the main verb:

• Sie ist müde, weil sie früh aufgestanden ist. (She’s tired because she got up early.)
• Ich frage mich, ob sie angekommen sind. (I wonder whether they have arrived.)

In subordinate clauses with both an auxiliary and a modal verb, the conjugated auxiliary verb comes before the two infinitives, with the main verb appearing first, followed by the modal verb:

• Du weißt, dass er das hätte machen können. (You know he could have done that.)
• Sie glaubt, dass er das Auto wird reparieren müssen. (She thinks he will have to fix the car.)

One last word order shift occurs in the case of yes-or-no questions. In this case, the conjugated auxiliary verb comes first, while the main verb, either in the past participle or in the infinitive, moves to the end:

• Hast du die Hausaufgaben gemacht? (Did you do the homework?)
• Seid ihr in den Urlaub gefahren? (Did you go on vacation?)

Practice tips for mastering German auxiliary verbs

Learning the forms of German auxiliary verbs requires some memorization, but the real challenge is using them in sentences, especially with modal verbs or within subordinate clauses.

A great way to start internalizing the three auxiliary verbs is to conjugate verbs in German by creating your own tables. Writing them out helps you visualize the patterns and recall forms more easily. Begin with the present tense, then move on to the past and passive forms. Once you feel more confident, try expanding your tables to include combinations with modal verbs.

After mastering conjugations, practice building compound sentences that use auxiliary verbs in different contexts. Start with simple examples, then gradually increase the complexity. Focus on verb placement, and don’t hesitate to experiment. This will help you get used to German word order, especially in more complex structures.

To lock in your skills, write or speak a little every day using past and passive tenses. Use simple prompts from your daily life: What time did you wake up today? What did you do on your last holiday? Have you read any good books lately? Record yourself or keep a short journal to track your progress. You’ll be surprised at how quickly you start to form these structures without having to think about them.

Are modal verbs auxiliary verbs?

Yes, modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb, because they support the main verb in expressing requests, orders, obligations or advice. Unlike haben, sein and werden, they don’t help form tenses, but instead modify the meaning of the main verb.

What is the rule for using “haben” or “sein”?

In the perfect and past perfect tenses, sein is used with most intransitive verbs that express a change of state or motion. Haben is used with most other verbs, especially transitive ones.

Learn the German auxiliary verbs

So, now you’ve seen just how essential the auxiliary verbs sein, haben and werden are in German. They play a key role in forming past, future and passive constructions, and they also give meaning to the main verb.

Mastering auxiliary verbs involves understanding German word order in both main and subordinate clauses, as well as how they work in combination with modal verbs. This takes time, memorization and regular practice with writing and speaking.If you’re looking to learn German or need help with grammar, Lingoda is here to support you. Our small group classes create the perfect environment to build confidence using the language in real-life situations. With flexible scheduling, you can keep making steady progress, even if your time is limited.

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French clothing vocabulary: A comprehensive guide

Mastering French clothing vocabulary can help you navigate shopping experiences more confidently — whether online or in stores — and  participate more naturally in everyday conversations.

This vocabulary guide provides all the necessary words for discussing clothing in French, including key nouns, verbs and practical phrases. You’ll also find some authentic French idioms and cultural insights into how French people view fashion and clothing.

• Essential French clothing vocabulary
• Clothing-related verbs and phrases
• French idioms and expressions related to clothing
• Fashion and clothing in French society
• FAQs

Essential French clothing vocabulary

In the tables below, you’ll find the words commonly used to talk about clothes in French.

General terms for clothing 

Everyday clothing items 

Outerwear 

Footwear 

Accessories 

Underwear and nightwear 

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Clothing-related verbs and phrases

To put your new clothes vocabulary into practice, you’ll need some verbs and phrases. Let’s see what’s in store!

Common verbs 

Useful phrases for shopping 

French idioms and expressions related to clothing

There’s nothing like mastering idioms to help you sound fluent. In French, many idioms incorporate vocabulary about clothing. Here are some examples:

Want to test out using these idioms in everyday conversation? We recommend putting it all into practice in Lingoda’s online French classes.

Fashion and clothing in French society

Here are a few insights about France’s long legacy of fashion-forward thought and how French people generally feel about fashion and clothing:

• The béret, one of the biggest fashion clichés about France, is rarely worn by French people nowadays (with the exception of some elderly men).
• Paris has a long-standing reputation as a global fashion capital. This is reflected in the number of French words loaned to other languages, including haute couture, prêt-à-porter and chic.
• The famously classy Parisian style can also be found in other major cities, such as Lyon and Marseille. However, it’s worth noting that not all French people are so stereotypically stylish.
• French clothing tends to be quite understated. If someone wears a very colorful outfit or a distinctive hairstyle in an everyday setting, they might attract amused or surprised glances.
• French people tend to be conscious of the environmental impact of clothing. The second-hand clothing market is booming thanks to the emergence of online platforms and vide-dressing pop-ups (clothing swap/sale events where people bring clothes they no longer want to exchange for other items).

What is the French word for clothing?

The French word for clothing is les vêtements or les habits.

How do you say “dress” in French?

In French, “a dress” is une robe (with an open “o” sound).

How do you say “swimsuit” in French?

In French, “a swimsuit” is un maillot de bain (with a silent “t”).

Ready to dress your French up?

Being able to talk about clothes in French will help you in many situations, whether you’re shopping or engaging in conversation with French speakers. From essential everyday terms to clothing-related expressions and idioms, this comprehensive guide has equipped you with key vocabulary to enhance your fluency in French.
As always, Lingoda is here to help you put it into practice. Our French classes in small groups with native-level teachers are exactly what you need to speak with confidence.

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Shaping the Lingoda experience: Dr. Thomas Gigant, Head of Product, on empowering language learners

Dr. Thomas Gigant joined Lingoda with a clear purpose: to merge his love for teaching with his expertise in building impactful digital products. What drew him in was Lingoda’s bold ambition to help learners unlock life-changing opportunities—whether it’s studying abroad, advancing their careers, or connecting across cultures—combined with a humble, improvement-driven team spirit. In this interview, he reflects on his journey so far, the power of product innovation in education, and how he leads a remote-first team toward shared impact and growth.

You’re still relatively new at Lingoda. What first attracted you to join as Head of Product, and what has your journey been like so far?

I’m passionate about learning and teaching. Alongside my product career, I teach at a business school, so moving to a company dedicated to language and skills development was a natural step. Lingoda offered me the opportunity to marry that passion, my career and my enthusiasm for developing products at scale: Helping learners around the world unlock new possibilities through education.

What sealed my decision was the culture. From my first conversations, I sensed a team that combines ambition with humility and a genuine appetite for improvement. I thrive in environments with big challenges and even bigger potential, and Lingoda is exactly that.

Since joining the company, I have focused on stabilising the product organisation, setting priorities and laying the foundations for sustainable growth. With each improvement to our collaboration framework and product development cycles, we are building the capability to deliver exponentially greater value to our learners globally. The complexity is real, but the momentum, the shared purpose and the opportunity to shape the future of language learning at scale are profoundly energizing. I see a clear path forward where our product innovations can fundamentally transform how millions of people acquire language skills and open doors they never thought possible.

From your perspective, how does product innovation at Lingoda support the learning experience for our students?

Product innovation at Lingoda is about much more than just developing features, it is about creating a meaningful and effective learning environment for our students and teachers. We focus on removing friction and enabling progress so that learners remain motivated and confident to achieve their goals.

At the heart of our product are our live classrooms, run by real, passionate teachers. We are constantly working to help them deliver the best possible experience while making the learner journey more personalised, goal-driven, and engaging.

Innovation here means improving every stage of the learning experience, from fantastic onboarding and early experiences to clearer progress tracking and smarter habit-building tools. It is about making it easier for students to stay on track and for teachers to focus on what they do best: Inspiring learning.

What excites you most about Lingoda’s future, and where do you hope to see the platform in the next year or two?

What excites me the most is Lingoda’s potential to evolve from a flexible learning platform to a truly trusted learning companion. We are not just helping people learn a language, but enabling them to achieve bigger life goals: attending university in another country, advancing professionally or connecting with others on a deeper level.

Over the next year or two, I would love to see Lingoda become the go-to destination for serious learners who want to achieve real results and are looking for guidance, motivation and support along the way. There is a huge opportunity in helping learners build strong habits, providing personalised guidance and accompanying them every step of the way. I am excited to see what we can do to elevate that experience and deliver real outcomes with heart.

As someone leading a remote‑friendly team, what strategies do you use to keep everyone connected, motivated and engaged?

I help support the three pillars of our remote-friendly culture: Clarity, trust and meaningful connections. We maintain structured rhythms with regular check-ins and clearly defined OKRs that ensure alignment across locations, while striking a balance between synchronous and asynchronous collaboration. My leadership philosophy focuses on evaluating outcomes rather than input. Team members co-create their goals with me and have the opportunity to organise their work in a way that works best for them. 

Trust is foundational to our success. That is why I deliberately break down silos and foster cross-functional collaboration. I consciously model the openness and authenticity I expect from the team and create space for discussions and light-hearted moments that strengthen our cohesion. 

While digital connection is our daily reality, we attach great importance to face-to-face meetings at our Berlin headquarters. These face-to-face interactions are invaluable for deepening relationships, sparking creative collaboration and strengthening our common goals in a way that digital tools simply cannot replicate. 

What advice would you give someone wanting to join the product team at Lingoda?

I encourage anyone who wants to join us to come with a strong sense of purpose. At Lingoda, we are building something that truly impacts people’s lives by helping them learn a new language, access educational or professional opportunities, or forge deeper connections with others. 

Secondly, bring curiosity, empathy and pragmatism. I value product managers who are deeply curious about our users, our business and the way things work, but who are also able to translate that curiosity into clear priorities and action. We are a team that values different perspectives. Each member of the product organisation brings their own background, strengths and way of thinking, and I believe that’s a real asset. At the same time, adaptability is essential. Not everything is clear from the outset. We are in a phase where designing the product also means designing the organisation, our processes and sometimes even the way we work. If you are someone who finds energy in this, who doesn’t mind rolling up your sleeves and who finds clarity through iteration, you will feel at home here.

Lastly, I would like to say this: care. Care about the learner experience. Care about your colleagues. Care about the craft. We want to build a product and a company that we are proud of, not just in terms of outcomes, but in how we get there. If that resonates with you, then Lingoda is a great place to grow and make a difference.

The 4 seasons in Spanish

Knowing how to talk about the 4 seasons in Spanish will be a great addition to your toolbox, whether you’re looking to learn Spanish to boost your CV, relocate to a sun-soaked Spanish-speaking country or drive personal growth. .

Imagine you’re planning to visit Spain for a seasonal festival, or you’d like to share your favorite summer memories with your Spanish-speaking friends, being able to talk about the seasons will help you express yourself naturally and with precision.

So, let’s dive right into the seasons in the Spanish language, along with some pronunciation tips and grammar rules to guide you along. Ready?

• What are the 4 seasons in the Spanish language?
• How to talk about the seasons in Spanish
• Practice the seasons in context
• FAQs

What are the 4 seasons in the Spanish language?

Let’s get started with the basics! These are the 4 seasons in Spanish and their pronunciation:

And here are a few common words related to the seasons that might come in handy:

Now, if you’re looking for some pronunciation tips, let’s take a look at these:

• The ‘v’ in verano is pronounced softer than in English, sounding almost like a ‘b’.
• Remember that the ‘o’ in Spanish is a short sound, just like the ‘o’ in ‘nope’.
• A single ‘r’ in the middle of a word (primavera) is pronounced by lightly tapping the tip of your tongue against the roof of your mouth, similar to the way the ‘t’ sounds in the American English pronunciation of ‘water’.

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How to talk about the seasons in Spanish

When it comes to the seasons in Spanish, here are some considerations regarding grammar and spelling to keep in mind:

When to use (or skip) definite articles 

All seasons in Spanish, except for primavera, are masculine nouns. Here are the singular and plural forms of each season:

• la primavera / las primaveras
• el verano / los veranos
• el otoño / los otoños
• el invierno / los inviernos

We must also note that, in Spanish, the seasons are usually accompanied by a definite article (la or el), just like in these sentences:

• Mi estación favorita es el verano (My favorite season is the summer).
• Los inviernos son fríos en el norte (Winters are cold in the North).

There are instances where the article is removed, especially when talking about plans around the seasons or specific statements. In these cases, we can utilize a demonstrative adjective or the preposition en (‘in’):

• Me voy de vacaciones en verano (I’m going on holiday in the summer).
• Este invierno será largo (This will be a long winter).

Capitalization and sentence placement rules 

In Spanish, the seasons are not capitalized, unless they’re placed at the beginning of a sentence:

• ¿Qué estación es la mejor, primavera o verano? Primavera, creo yo (Which season is the best, spring or summer? For me it’s the spring).

Common verbs, phrases and terms for each season

Now, let’s explore a few common verbs and Spanish weather-related terms to expand our vocabulary around seasons:

• Primavera:

• Verano:

• Otoño:

• Invierno: